The Jews of early modern Marburg, 1640s—1800

This article examines Jewish household and family organization in a middle-sized German city, the Upper Hessian regional center of Marburg, the population of which ranged from 2500 to 6000 from the Thirty Years War to the end of the 18th century. Some general hypotheses about population development, household structure, and family life conveniently summarized by Toch [Toch, M. (1995). Aspects of stratification in early modern German Jewry: Population history and village Jews. In R. P. Hsia & H. Lehmann (Eds.). In and out of the ghetto: Jewish-Gentile relations in late medieval and early modern Germany (pp. 77-89). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press] serve as an organizational frame for the case study. In Toch's view, Jews' comparative wealth, as well as governmental restrictions on their settlement and marriage in central Europe, led to their having larger and more complex households than those of the Christian majority. While household enumerations over time confirm several of Toch's observations, especially the larger size of Jewish families, neither Hessian settlement policy nor local Marburg opposition prevented the Jewish minority of about 1% from keeping pace with general population growth. Moreover, Jews did not respond to their regulated living conditions and status as cultural outsiders with a family organization exhibiting remarkably more internal complexity than did Christian households.     

Jewish household structure in an early modern town: The Worms ghetto census of 1610

In July 1610, municipal officials of the German city of Worms conducted a visitation of the city's Jewish ghetto. The visitation resulted in a remarkably precise census of this Jewish community, which was one of the largest in early modern Germany. In 1610, the Jewish community of Worms had a total of 759 inhabitants living in 95 households plus some additional indigents living in communal institutions. A total of 619 of those living in households (81.6%) belonged to the householders' own families while 140 (18.4%) were students, servants, or other nonrelatives. Households ranged in size from 1 to 21 inhabitants. The median household size was seven persons. One-third of the Jewish households of Worms included more than one conjugal unit, typically the householding couple plus one or more married children.     

Families and mountains in the Balkans: Christian and Muslim household structures in the Rhodopes, 19th–20th century

This article investigates household structures and household formation patterns among Orthodox Christians and Muslim Bulgarians in the Rhodope Mountains between 1875 and 1935. The analysis, which is based on the computerized evaluation of household listings as well as on ethnographic sources, reveals obvious differences in the structures of Orthodox and Muslim households. Muslim households were more likely to be complex, whereas among the Orthodox population, nuclear families prevailed. But, despite the different cultural backgrounds and economic activities of the two communities, the underlying structure of their household formations shared also some common features. Christian and Muslim households did not differ with respect to size. The complex households of the Muslims were just a phase in the developmental cycle and rarely included more than two simple families. Among both Christians and Muslims, the village community was more important than descent groups. The Rhodopes therefore do not fit into the pattern of the zadruga (the large, complex family household in the western Balkans). A division appears to have existed between family forms and social network patterns for the eastern and western Balkans. Clearly, generalizations about family structures are difficult because of the great variability of family patterns within the Balkans.     

Becoming widowed

This article discusses the characteristics of widowhood in early 19th-century Austria, focusing on the sources of economic support. Higher proportions of the widowed population were found in inmate than in tenant households, and more women than men were widowed. Widows were more likely to live on their own than adults in general were, indicating that many widows could support their households from their own resources. For 40% of the widows, however, familial support was available in the form of a coresident extended household. Tenant households with greater resources at their disposal were better able to offer this form of support than inmate households. Less than 1% of tenant widows lived alone. Longitudinal data were analyzed to determine the relative frequency with which tenant and inmate widows succeeded their late husbands as household heads, remarried, or retired to become the mothers or mothers-in-law of the new household heads.     

Demographic aspects of the Greek household: The case of Preveza (18th century)

The demography of the Greek household is investigated within the context of the town of Preveza. The size, age, and sex composition and structure of the household are also considered. Two detailed censuses of the town are used: the first carried out in 1719, and the second, around 1780. The mean household size has been calculated: 4.24 for 1719 and 4.36 for c. 1780. Analysis of the data shows a clear predominance of males, particularly among the young, and of simple family households. Results presented here need to be seen in the light of other regions of Greece, since few studies yet exist.     

Tracking individuals and households: longitudinal features of Danseong household register data

Household registers, which were compiled every three years and contained a variety of demographic information, are invaluable sources with which to investigate family and demographic behaviors of historical populations in Korea, especially during the period of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Linking three sets of household registers that covered the area of Danseong from 1780 to 1786, in this study we examine longitudinal features of Korean household registers. We assess the degree of attrition over six years at both individual and household level, and identify social and demographic characteristics associated with attrition. Our investigation shows a considerable degree of attrition of individuals and households over six years which is significantly associated with the social status of individuals and the household heads. We supplement the analysis of exits with the analysis of new entrances, which shows that in each year of register a substantial number of individuals, comparable to the size of individuals and households lost, were newly added. Those who newly entered the registers are very similar in their characteristics to those who exited the registers. We discuss the implications of our findings for studies that rely on Korean household registers to examine family and demographic behaviors of historical populations in Korea and East Asia.     

The Jewish population and family in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the second half of the 18th century

The sources that can be employed to examine demographic aspects of the Jewish population and family in 18th-century Poland–Lithuania are sparse and mostly fiscal in origin. Since this source material has been preserved only for some periods and regions, few generalizations can be made. First, the authors have referred to the most comprehensive census that was carried out in 1791 by household in Cracow province (województwo krakowskie). It does not allow for detailed family reconstitution, however. Although extended/multiple family households might have been fairly common, the two-generational conjugal family unit seems to have prevailed, and no more than four nuclear families lived in one house. In addition, the age at first marriage was influenced only to a limited extent by the traditional practice of early marriage.     

The Jewish population and family in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the second half of the 18th century

The sources that can be employed to examine demographic aspects of the Jewish population and family in 18th-century Poland–Lithuania are sparse and mostly fiscal in origin. Since this source material has been preserved only for some periods and regions, few generalizations can be made. First, the authors have referred to the most comprehensive census that was carried out in 1791 by household in Cracow province (województwo krakowskie). It does not allow for detailed family reconstitution, however. Although extended/multiple family households might have been fairly common, the two-generational conjugal family unit seems to have prevailed, and no more than four nuclear families lived in one house. In addition, the age at first marriage was influenced only to a limited extent by the traditional practice of early marriage.     

Old people in Polish cities in the late eighteenth century

The issue of old age as a period in life of a person in the cities of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was not widely discussed in historic literature of the past. This was due, to a large extent, to the beliefs of the researchers regarding the difficulty in capturing this phenomenon in light of rather Modest statistical sources. This study is, therefore, an attempt to scrutinise the mechanisms behind the functioning of city communities in the territories of central Poland in the late-feudal age on a basic level - the level of the smallest social unit and its economic base, i.e. the household, based on handwritten civil-military censuses from 1791-1792. The author is interested in the living situation of old people, their sizes and gender proportions in cities varying in size: from small to large ones in the second half of the 18th century. The article presents the dependencies between the age and position of men and women in the household and the proportions of old people being heads of households. Using the typology by Peter Laslett a model of a household ran by old people was shown against the background of a general structure of households in cities. The last part of the text concerns the size of households ran by old people, taking into account the social status, and their position within the family. The analysis of the censuses does not allow to determine any clear difference of living through old age in Polish cities in the 18th century in comparison to the regions which are attributed a ’unique’ model of European forms of family. The structural similarity of old age seen in Polish cities is closer to the model observed in cities of western than of eastern Europe.     

Social structure of the Jewish quarter in Vienna during the liberal era (1850–1900)

The article examines the nature of residential and coresidential patterns in the second half of the 19th century in a district of Vienna known as Leopoldstadt, which had a large Jewish population. Analysis of a database from this district, paying attention to occupation and class variables, suggests that the Jewish population therein was more mixed than traditional interpretations suggest, and that the concentration of Jews there can plausibly be explained mainly by reference to residential choices made by Jews to live near an economic infrastructure that catered to their religious and cultural needs. The patterns identified in the data suggest further that in interpreting the residential patterns of the city it is necessary to conceptualize the problem as one of interaction between religion, economics, and residential choice.     

Social structure of the Jewish quarter in Vienna during the liberal era (1850–1900)

The article examines the nature of residential and coresidential patterns in the second half of the 19th century in a district of Vienna known as Leopoldstadt, which had a large Jewish population. Analysis of a database from this district, paying attention to occupation and class variables, suggests that the Jewish population therein was more mixed than traditional interpretations suggest, and that the concentration of Jews there can plausibly be explained mainly by reference to residential choices made by Jews to live near an economic infrastructure that catered to their religious and cultural needs. The patterns identified in the data suggest further that in interpreting the residential patterns of the city it is necessary to conceptualize the problem as one of interaction between religion, economics, and residential choice.     

A POLITICAL THREAT MODEL OF INTERGROUP VIOLENCE: JEWS IN PRE–WORLD WAR II GERMANY*

Research often links minority group size and economic conditions with levels of intergroup violence, in line with facets of group threat and structural theories of intergroup crime. Building on the group threat perspective, we investigate the political antecedents of intergroup violence. This work tests the theoretical premise that violence against minority groups increases with the strength of political parties associated with minority group interests, independent of group size and economic conditions. This model is tested empirically for the case of violence against Jews in pre–World War II Germany, where Jews constituted a small proportion of the German population but were often associated with the leadership of the political left. Findings suggest that the gross domestic product and Jewish population size did not have predicted effects on major violent incidents against Jews. It was in fact the rising strength of leftist political parties that ignited anti‐Semitic violence. Other venues where this model could be applied are proposed, and the findings are discussed in the context of intergroup violence and theories emphasizing minority group threat.     

Jewish–Gentile intermarriage in pre-war Amsterdam

Intermarriage is generally regarded as the litmus test in the process of assimilation of ethnic-minority groups. The Jewish community in Amsterdam was a religious minority. When a Jew married a Gentile it was assumed that Judaism lost a family. Odds ratio calculations based on marriage tables for 1911–1941 show that the rate of intermarriage among Jews was much lower than among Catholics, Protestants and religious unaffiliated. Although the Jewish community might still be more homogeneous than the Protestant and Catholic communities, it was rapidly assimilating as the log odds ratios for Jews dropped more heavily. While mutual aversion is reflected in the remaining high log odds ratios for Jewish–Catholic marriages, Jewish–Protestant marriages and Jewish–unaffiliated marriages increased because of the higher propensity among Protestants to marry a Jew and the higher propensity among Jews to marry an unaffiliated spouse from the 1920s onwards. Next, we created life courses for a sample of 480 descendants from Jewish grandparents living in Amsterdam in 1941 of whom we know were married to a Gentile or to a Jew. The collected data from the Amsterdam registry allow us to test several hypotheses on preferences, opportunities and third parties in a logistic regression analysis. One's own affiliation significantly influenced the preference to marry a Gentile or a Jew. Successive marriage cohorts showed a higher chance to marry a Gentile among those who had Jewish parents at birth. A similar but weaker effect is found for those born in the old Jewish neighborhood. These differences in effect on later marriage cohorts indicate that religious and social barriers within the Jewish community had largely diminished. Opportunities like the social network of the mother and the living district during one's adolescents' age also significantly influenced the choice of a spouse.     

Jewish–Gentile intermarriage in pre-war Amsterdam

Intermarriage is generally regarded as the litmus test in the process of assimilation of ethnic-minority groups. The Jewish community in Amsterdam was a religious minority. When a Jew married a Gentile it was assumed that Judaism lost a family. Odds ratio calculations based on marriage tables for 1911–1941 show that the rate of intermarriage among Jews was much lower than among Catholics, Protestants and religious unaffiliated. Although the Jewish community might still be more homogeneous than the Protestant and Catholic communities, it was rapidly assimilating as the log odds ratios for Jews dropped more heavily. While mutual aversion is reflected in the remaining high log odds ratios for Jewish–Catholic marriages, Jewish–Protestant marriages and Jewish–unaffiliated marriages increased because of the higher propensity among Protestants to marry a Jew and the higher propensity among Jews to marry an unaffiliated spouse from the 1920s onwards. Next, we created life courses for a sample of 480 descendants from Jewish grandparents living in Amsterdam in 1941 of whom we know were married to a Gentile or to a Jew. The collected data from the Amsterdam registry allow us to test several hypotheses on preferences, opportunities and third parties in a logistic regression analysis. One's own affiliation significantly influenced the preference to marry a Gentile or a Jew. Successive marriage cohorts showed a higher chance to marry a Gentile among those who had Jewish parents at birth. A similar but weaker effect is found for those born in the old Jewish neighborhood. These differences in effect on later marriage cohorts indicate that religious and social barriers within the Jewish community had largely diminished. Opportunities like the social network of the mother and the living district during one's adolescents' age also significantly influenced the choice of a spouse.     

Household structures in urban Albania in 1918

This article intends to shed further light on urban household structures in Albania as far less is known about them compared with rural households. The population census of 1918, which was forgotten for decades, is used for this purpose and proves to be a very valuable source. After a look at the theoretical framework of household formation patterns in this region and at comparative studies in other countries of the region, the size and composition of households in Albania are analysed and differences within the urban population recognised. These urban households were smaller and less complex than rural households in Albania. This investigation into the lives of urban dwellers regarding their living jointly with other members of the household adds to the picture of households frequently being divided between brothers. Nevertheless, multiple-family households also existed in an urban environment and more so in Albania than in neighbouring countries. One can find many differences within the urban population concerning the size and complexity of their households, but a higher status tended to be necessary to increase the complexity of the household. The different economic and spatial environment in cities made living in a multiple-family household more difficult to achieve and therefore richer rather than poorer people more usually lived in such constellations.     

Household structures in urban Albania in 1918

This article intends to shed further light on urban household structures in Albania as far less is known about them compared with rural households. The population census of 1918, which was forgotten for decades, is used for this purpose and proves to be a very valuable source. After a look at the theoretical framework of household formation patterns in this region and at comparative studies in other countries of the region, the size and composition of households in Albania are analysed and differences within the urban population recognised. These urban households were smaller and less complex than rural households in Albania. This investigation into the lives of urban dwellers regarding their living jointly with other members of the household adds to the picture of households frequently being divided between brothers. Nevertheless, multiple-family households also existed in an urban environment and more so in Albania than in neighbouring countries. One can find many differences within the urban population concerning the size and complexity of their households, but a higher status tended to be necessary to increase the complexity of the household. The different economic and spatial environment in cities made living in a multiple-family household more difficult to achieve and therefore richer rather than poorer people more usually lived in such constellations.     

Genetic variation of three tetrameric tandem repeats in four distinct Israeli ethnic groups.

The allele frequency distributions of three STR loci amplified by PCR have been studied in four Israeli communities: Ashkenazi Jews and three non-Ashkenazi groups, namely Moroccan, Yemenite, and Ethiopian Jews. The loci analyzed were CSF1PO, TPOX, and HUMTHO1. The typing was performed in sequencing polyacrylamide gels under denaturing conditions that could separate alleles with differences of a single base. The population data were analyzed with respect to Hardy-Weinberg (H-W) equilibrium and found that all loci meet the H-W expectations. No-ticeable differences were encountered between the four Jewish ethnic groups studied hereby indicating the importance of establishing a local database to be used in human identity testing in these different Israeli Jewish groups.     

The stem family and labour markets: Reflections on households and firms in Japan's economic development

This paper examines a view that the traditional stem family system was one of the preconditions for Japan's modern economic development, focusing on labour markets and skill formation practices. The paper begins with a brief look at the Japanese stem family household formation rules. Then, exploration is made, first, on the self-employed, the largest sector of the early modern economy; second, the merchant house and its employment patterns as an origin of present day large corporations' employment system and skill formation and human capital management practices; and third, workshop industries, which formed middle and lower layers of the manufacturing sector in the period of industrialisation. Finally, women's marriage behaviour is examined in relation to labour markets, especially changes in real wages. All this is an attempt to go some way towards a better understanding of the ways in which the family economy and corporate firms worked in economic development, rather than to suggest an alternative hypothesis on the relationship between family and household factors and subsequent economic development.     

我国农村土地家庭承包经营权的权利主体探究

家庭承包是农村土地承包经营中非常重要的一种方式,家庭承包经营权的权利主体是集体经济组织成员还是农户直接影响到了该权利的利益归属以及存续过程中的权利变更。结合我国农村历史发展状况和现行法律的立法目的,应该明确家庭承包经营权的实质权利主体应为集体经济组织成员,该权利具有成员权的属性,是农村集体经济组织成员人人平等享有的权利,农户只是家庭承包中的形式主体。     

The dissolution of the large complex households in the Balkans: Was the ultimate reason structural or cultural?

The article examines three village communities—Lekenik in Civil Croatia, Bobovac in the Croatian Military Border, and Orašac in Serbia—to answer the question of why the inhabitants of these villages experienced radical changes in their collective lives and their household organization during the nineteenth century. Complex households had developed in these villages in previous centuries, but a series of political, social, and economic changes, starting in the middle decades of the century, combined to make the continuation of the large complex household unfeasible. In the final analysis, the process of transformation of the large and complex households was rooted in economic change, particularly in the arrival of a monetized economy and mercantile capitalism. The cultural values of complex households still existed after the dissolution of the large complex households, and continued to be important well into the twentieth century.