Self-reported offending,maturational reform,and the Easterlin hypothesis

The maturational reform hypothesis and the Easterlin cohort size hypothesis are used to specify models in which age, period, and cohort effects on self-reported crime and delinquency are estimated. Curvilinear effects, logarithmic transformations, and the distinction between prevalence and frequency of offending are considered. The maturational reform hypothesis is supported for general delinquency but not for serious (Index) delinquency, for which there appears to be a steady decline in the behavior with age. The Easterlin hypothesis is supported for both general and Index delinquency. Theoretical, methodological, and substantive implications of the results are discussed.     

Testing moffitt's neuropsychological variation hypothesis for the prediction of life-course persistent offending

Abstract

Although neuropsychological deficits have been linked to antisocial behavior, theories of crime have been slow to develop formal processes and predictions for neuropsychological deficits. One recently articulated theory, however, places emphasis on the influence of neuropsychological variation in the development of antisocial behavior. In her developmental taxonomy. Moffitt outlines a theory of antisocial behavior that rests on the presence of two groups of offenders: life-course persisters and adolescent-limiteds. Both groups occupy distinct etiologies for antisocial involvement and are believed to engage in different antisocial activities. One of the main differences between the two groups is the role that neuropsychological deficits play in the production of antisocial behavior. Moffitt hypothesizes that neuropsychological deficits are predictive of antisocial involvement for life-course persisters but not for adolescent-limiteds. Using data from the Philadelphia portion of the National Collaborative Perinatal Project, proxy measures of neuropsychological deficits are used to predict four different manifestations of life-course persistent offending. Results support Moffitt's hypothesis about the relationship between poor neuropsychological test scores and life-course persistent styles of offending.     

Developmental patterns of sex differences in delinquency among African American adolescents: A test of the sex-invariance hypothesis

This paper addresses a developmental issue concerning longitudinal patterns of sex differences in delinquency. Hirschi and Gottfredson argue that the age-delinquency relation is invariant across sex and that sex differences in delinquency are invariant over time as well. A combination of these two propositions generates a hypothesis, called here the sex-invariance hypothesis, that sex differences in delinquency are invariant over developmental stages of adolescents. To test the sex-invariance hypothesis, nine waves of panel data collected from a representative urban sample of African American adolescents are analyzed. The overall findings show that sex differences in delinquency tend to vary as the subjects grow older, rather than remain constant as the invariance thesis posits. Specifically, sex differences in delinquency peak at the age of 15 and thereafter declines with age. We also find that parental supervision significantly explains sex differences in delinquency for younger adolescence, but not for older adolescence.     

Investigating mobility patterns for repetitive sexual contact in adult child sex offending

In the present study, geographic mobility exhibited by child sex offenders was examined. Geographic mobility was defined as the use of multiple locations to obtain repetitive sexual contact with the same victim. The sample consisted of 77 adult offenders convicted for having committed a sexual offence against a child, and who agreed to provide confidential self-report data concerning their offending behaviours. Based on a set of offence characteristics, offenders who used a single location were compared to offenders who used multiple locations for sexual contact. Results showed that offenders who used multiple locations are more likely to isolate the victim, use violence, involve the victim in several sexual episodes, abuse the victim for a period exceeding one year, and make the victim participate and perform sexual behaviours on them during sexual episodes. Examining more closely offenders who used multiple locations for abuse, three offence patterns were further identified (i.e., familial-low mobility offence, non familial-high mobility offence, and familial-high mobility offence). Going for a car ride was also found to be a common location/situation used in the familial-low mobility offence subgroup, while the use of outdoor locations on a regular basis was found to be rare in high mobility patterns subgroups.     

Racial differences in violence and self-esteem among prison inmates

Recent scholarship in social psychology suggests that individuals with an elevated sense of self-esteem may respond aggressively or violently when this heightened egoism is threatened. The present study explores differences in self-esteem, aggression, and violent behavior among a sample of 644 male state prison inmates. The results indicated that Black inmates expressed higher levels of self-esteem than White inmates. Although Blacks and Whites did not differ on a psychological measure of aggressive personality, Black prisoners reported more violent behavior than Whites. Moreover, high self-esteem predicted violent behavior inside prison, but only for Whites. This finding suggests that the relationship between high self-esteem and violence may be race-specific.     

Racial differences in desistance from substance abuse: the impact of religious involvement on recovery

This study examines variations by race in the relationship between religiosity and desistance from substance abuse. Although most studies have included race as a control variable, only a few studies compared the equivalence of associations among religiosity, delinquency, recovery from substance abuse, and other variables between Black and White samples. Using data from the intake and 12-month follow-up survey of the Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome Study, this study examines levels of religious involvement of Black and White drug treatment clients. In addition, it empirically tests whether religious involvement exerts differential effects on Black and White clients' recovery from substance abuse. It was found that Black clients reported higher levels of religious involvement (measured by church attendance) than did White clients. Data indicated that religious behavior at 1-year follow-up was positively associated with Black clients' recovery from substance abuse. In contrast, religious behavior was not a significant predictor of White clients' desistance from substance abuse. Directions for future research and policy implications are discussed.     

Racial differences in perceptions of the severity of sanctions: A comparison of prison with alternatives

We survey adult probationers to examine racial differences in perceptions of the severity of alternative sanctions compared to imprisonment. Results show that blacks rate every alternative sanction as more punitive than do whites, a higher percentage of blacks than whites refuse to participate in each alternative and choose prison instead, and blacks identify more strongly with reasons to avoid alternatives. Furthermore, blacks and whites generate different rankings of the severity of criminal justice sanctions. This may be due to racial differences in the perceived severity of imprisonment, and/or racial differences in “risk assessments” associated with serving alternatives. Implications for rational choice/deterrence theories and correctional policy are discussed.     

Evaluating contextual patterns of delinquency: Gender-based differences

The effects of legal and extralegal variables on sentences are compared for separate samples of male and female felony imprisonment cases from a state justice system. Although no gross sex differences in sentence severity were found, the variables that predict sentence severity were found to differ by sex. Race affected sentence length for men but not for women; employment status affected the sentences of women but not of men. The effect of offense seriousness on sentence length varied by sex. Family status variables were found to have weak and inconsistent effects on the sentences of female offenders. Qualitative analysis of the official narratives of the cases studied revealed some evidence that sex differences in legal processing reflect the influence of patriarchal values.     

On the relationship between cognitive abilities and life-course-persistent offending among a sample of African Americans: A longitudinal test of Moffitt's hypothesis

Prior criminological research showed that cognitive abilities were related to delinquent and criminal activity, primarily within adolescent samples. Moffitt's developmental taxonomy anticipates that cognitive abilities will relate to criminal activity differently throughout the population of offenders, mattering more for life-course-persistent than adolescence-limited offenders. Unfortunately, prior research had not examined in great detail the long-term influence of cognitive abilities on criminal activity from birth to adulthood nor had research explored this issue within an African American sample. In this study, data from the Philadelphia portion of the National Collaborative Perinatal Project (NCPP) were used to examine the long-term effect of cognitive abilities on criminal activity from birth to adulthood.     

Racial differences in the prevalence of intimate partner violence against women and associated factors

Intimate partner violence against women (IPV) affects all populations, but significant variations among these groups have been suggested. However, research results on racial differences in IPV are not only inconclusive, they are also limited-particularly with regard to racial minorities. As a result, it has been challenging for practitioners and service providers in many communities to serve an increasing number of racial minority clients. This study used the Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiology Surveys (CPES) to examine differences in the prevalence of IPV, and associated factors, among major race groups in the U.S. Included variables were age, race, financial security, employment, education, social network, IPV perpetration and victimization, and severity of IPV. The results showed that Blacks were victimized the most, followed by Whites and Latinos, and Asians were victimized the least. Asians were the least likely to be victimized by IPV, even when controlling for sociodemographic variables. The odds of victimization for Blacks and Latinos were not significantly different from Whites. Financial security and age affected IPV victimization. Those who perceived themselves as financially secure were less likely to be victimized than those who did not. The older were less likely to be victimized than the younger. Employment, education, and social networks did not affect victimization. Race was not a significant predictor of perpetration, when controlling for other variables. Age was the only predictor of perpetration: the older were less likely to perpetrate IPV than the younger.     

Exploring the type-of-crime hypothesis, religiosity, and spirituality in an adult male prison population

This study examined the association between measures of spirituality and religiosity and characteristics of current criminal conviction in a male prison population. Spirituality was operationalized as spiritual well-being and existential well-being. Religiosity was operationalized as frequency of religious service attendance, whether an individual considered himself to be religious, and how strongly an individual believed his religious beliefs influenced his behavior. Inmates whose convictions were property related reported greater spiritual wellbeing, were more likely to consider themselves religious, and to say that religious beliefs influenced their behavior than inmates whose crimes were not property related. Inmates whose convictions were drug related were less likely to consider themselves religious, and inmates whose conviction involved violence were more likely to consider themselves religious but less likely to endorse statements that religious beliefs influenced their behavior. The distinction between religiosity and spirituality is discussed in terms of the type-of-crime hypothesis.     

The persistence of early childhood physical aggression: Examining maternal delinquency and offending,mental health,and cultural differences

Purpose

To examine the persistence of physical aggression in preschoolers and associated correlates (i.e., socio-demographic, socioeconomic, criminality, parenting practices, maternal mental health).

Methods

One-year follow-ups are completed with 240 mothers and their preschool children (boys and girls) from the Vancouver Longitudinal Study on the Psychosocial Development of Children. A series of structural equation models are examined.

Results

Maternal psychological symptoms, juvenile delinquency, and adult offending are associated with higher levels of physical aggression in their offspring. Children of non-Caucasian mothers and those born outside of North are less physically aggressive. Cultural differences in the correlates of physical aggression were identified.

Conclusions

Maternal past delinquency, current adult offending, and mental health are important factors in the development of children’s physical aggression. The findings suggest that there are multiple pathways leading to chronic physical aggression, which may be culturally-based. Cultural differences should be taken into account when developing programs and intervening with families of children with behavioral problems.     

Racial disproportionality in state prison admissions: Can regional variation be explained by differential arrest rates?

Recent studies have found that states in the Midwest incarcerate Blacks at a higher rate than those in the South. This article examines the extent to which this regional pattern of racial disproportionality in incarceration rates could be explained by controlling for race-specific arrest rates. The findings showed that the level of racial disproportionality in imprisonment decreased among all of the regions after controlling for race-specific arrest rates, but previously observed regional differences remained. These findings indicate that differences in the level of racial disproportionality in incarceration rates among regions were due to differential involvement in serious crimes by race resulting from a higher concentration of Blacks in urban areas relative to Whites in the Midwest.     

Youth offending and youth transitions: the power of capital in influencing change

Neither the literature on offending nor that on desistance adequately explains the short-term nature of youth offending, young people’s propensity to desist from offending as they reach early adulthood and the importance of youth transitions in helping or hindering young people’s access to legitimate and conventional opportunities and responsibilities. It is suggested in this article that the three phases of offending—onset, maintenance and desistance—run parallel courses with the three phases of youth transitions—childhood, youth and adulthood and that both these processes are influenced by discrepancies in levels of capital for young people at each stage. In a recent Scottish study of desistance, Bourdieu’s concepts of capital are used to demonstrate the commonalities between youth offending and youth transitions and to better understand young people’s search for integration and recognition—whether this be through offending or conventionality. The article concludes that the concepts of capital and youth transitions could both be employed more usefully in the field of criminology to explain the transient nature of offending in youth and the greater likelihood of desistance once legitimate and sustainable opportunities are found to spend as well as to accumulate capital in early adulthood.

Racial differences among shelter residents: A comparison of anglo,black, and hispanic battered

The implications of racial differences for shelter services has become an increasing concern with the expansion and development of shelters for battered women. This study employs bivariate cross-tabulations and discriminant analysis of shelter intake and exit interviews to determine the most influential variables in differentiating anglo, black, and hispanic women. The groups appear to be differentiated most by income and marital related variables, and very little by abuse and help-seeking variables. The findings suggest that the greatest differences overall are between anglo and hispanic women, and that additional economic and educational supports need to be directed to the hispanic group.     

Profiles in the offending process of nonserial sexual murderers

The aim of this study was to investigate specific pathways in the offending processes of nonserial sexual murderers and to examine possible relationships with different precrime, per-crime, and postcrime factors. Included in this study were 36 offenders who have committed at least one sexual murder against a female victim and they were classified using cluster analysis. Participants using the sadistic pathway planned their offenses and used physical restraints during the offenses. Furthermore, they mutilated and humiliated their victims. Finally, they hid the bodies of the victims. Participants using the anger pathway had not premeditated the homicide. Mutilation, humiliation, and physical restraints were less predominant with these participants than with those using the sadistic pathway. Moreover, these offenders were more likely to leave the bodies at the crime scenes after the killings occurred. These two profiles are compared with empirical studies addressing sexual homicide.     

The Politics of Racial Disparity Reform: Racial Inequality and Criminal Justice Policymaking in the States

Racial inequalities in criminal justice are pressing problems for policymakers. Prior literature suggests elected officials promulgate punitive, racially disparate criminal justice policies due to partisanship and racial fears, but scholarship has yet to explain how and why elected officials address racial problems in criminal processing. This article introduces the framework of racial disparity reform policymaking. A racial disparity reform is a policy that seeks to reduce distinctions in criminal justice institutions’ treatment of racial groups. Elected officials pursue these policies due to ideological beliefs in civil rights ideals and political interests in appearing to solve social problems. Using an original database of policy enactments, this article first presents the distribution and types of reform measures adopted by elected officials in all 50 states between 1998 and 2011. It then examines social and political explanations for when state legislatures and executives adopt racial disparity reforms. Policy enactment is predicted by worsening problems of racial disproportion in criminal processing, Democratic control of elected branches, and the absence of judicial efforts to improve racial fairness within a state’s criminal justice system. Similar dynamics encourage the development of different measures types within policies. Such ideological and problem-solving explanations for racial disparity reform show a potential for elected officials to forge more racially just criminal justice practices.     

Measurement bias in self-reports of offending: a systematic review of experiments

Journal of Experimental Criminology - Self-reported offending is one of the primary measurement methods in criminology. In this article, we aimed to systematically review the experimental evidence...     

The onset of adult offending: A neglected dimension of the criminal career

The conventional wisdom in criminology is that adult onset of offending is a rare event. Closer examination of the extant literature that use official records, however, reveals that an average of 50 percent of adult offenders initiate offending at age eighteen or older. Although criminological research has investigated late onset offending in adolescence, there is little research on adult onset offending and the correlates of adult offending. Using police contact and interview data from the 1942 and 1949 birth cohort data from Racine, WI, this study investigated the correlates of crime for adult onset and persistent offenders. The results show that employment is the only correlate to affect the probability of adult offending differently for previously delinquent and nondelinquent offenders. This article concludes by highlighting the neglect of research on adult offenders, specifically the large percentage of adult onset offenders, and calling for more research on this topic.