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1.
This paper implements a methodology that exploits firms and households’ optimality conditions to measure money laundering
for the Italian economy. This approach, first implemented by Ingram et al. (J Monet Econ 40:435–436, 1997) to the household
production sector, and by Busato et al. (Using theory for measurement: an analysis of the behaviour of underground economy
working paper, Aarhus University, 2006) for measuring the underground economy, allows to generate high frequency time-series
for money laundering using a theoretical two-sector dynamic general equilibrium model calibrated over the sample 1981:01–2001:04.
The analysis of the generated series suggests two main results. First, money laundering accounts for approximately 12 percent
of aggregate GDP; second, money laundering is more volatile than aggregate GDP and it is negatively correlated with it.
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2.
The emphasis of government legislation on money laundering has been based on the assumption that reporting institutions are
able to spot deviant customer behaviour and that implicitly such behaviour is criminal. This paper looks at the drivers for
reporting of suspicious or unusual activity, in particular, focusing on the principle of reputation. It considers the evidence
over bank disclosure within annual published reports with respect to their money laundering compliance activity; particularly
examining whether there was any change in disclosure and hence reputation management reporting by those banks fined by the
regulator for lapses of compliance. An attempt is also made to apply the principles of legitimacy theory to evaluate the association
between money laundering and reputation looking for evidence of a ‘virtuous cycle of compliance’. However, the findings point
to limited public awareness of money laundering and to the adoption of a deficit rather than enhancement model of reputation
management.
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3.
This paper describes the UK’s anti-money laundering and asset recovery laws and the aims and objectives behind the regime
since the introduction of the Proceeds of Crime Act in 2002. It then evaluates the regime in terms of the amount of criminal
assets recovered, its application against organised crime and its impact upon the price of illegal drugs.
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4.
The paper explains the reasons for modern money laundring legislation, namely to reduce the incidence of certain primary offences.
Whereas enactment and effectuation of this legislation is costly, its postive effects typically materialize in other jurisdictions
(positive external effects). The paper shows that international covenants seek to give direct incentives to overcome the
possible underprovision in anti-money laundering legislation and enforcement. The paper also shows how, in such an international
context, anti-money laundering legislation can be easily misused as a political weapon in the cross-border fight against "unwanted
individuals" and gives concrete examples for such an arbitrary enforcement.
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5.
Advances in information and communication technologies (ICT) have had, and will continue to have, wide-ranging influences
on how the banking and finance industry operates. Making payments and transmitting money electronically or online are increasingly
popular. An increased dependence on global electronic payment systems and the ability to move large amounts of money expeditiously
across different jurisdiction, however, expose both payment processing companies and consumers to an evolving spectrum of
threats such as fraud and money laundering. This article considers ways in which prepaid cards can be exploited by organised
criminals and terrorists to launder their illicit proceeds of crime, and to transfer money anonymously and instantaneously
over the globe for use by terrorist organisations. Risks identified in this article include recruiting card mules (e.g. international
students) to purchase prepaid cards, and the mailing or shipping of prepaid cards out of the country without regulators being
aware. To minimise risks of abuse by organised criminals and terrorists, legislation will need to adapt to deal with threats
that organised criminals and terrorists seek to exploit. Future directions for research in relation to prepaid cards are also
identified.
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6.
This article explores the possibility of measuring the impact of law enforcement on organized crime in a reliable and accountable
manner, both in general terms and with a practical focus on the Canadian context. In considering measures to combat organized
crime, a focus on process measurement has obscured the more substantial question of progress as regards the dependent variable
itself: the bottom line of reducing the impact of organized criminal behaviour. While outcome measures are more challenging
to identify than process measures, this fact alone does not minimize the need to demonstrate the connection between organized
crime enforcement and its presumed outcomes to a greater degree of certainty. To date, this has not been realized to any significant
degree, as revealed by a review of existing international approaches to measuring the impact of enforcement activity. The
article argues that a multidisciplinary focus on community level indicators of crime, if initially less accessible than process
measures of impact on organized crime groups, offers promise as a measurement of absolute and relative impact of state investment
in enforcement.
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7.
This paper discusses issues related to measuring organized crime as they have become manifest in the Dutch contribution to
the EU Organised Crime Threat Assessment (OCTA). It intends to convey to a wider academic community certain issues of definition,
methodology and accountability, understanding the NTA process in terms of the communication of risks in a context of competitive
defining institutions.
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8.
This paper provides a preliminary overview of research on organized crime in Asia drawing on selected papers from a symposium
held at the National University of Singapore in June 2007. We draw on these contributions to emphasize the enterprise nature
of organized crime and the common problems encountered by law enforcement in controlling and preventing the many harms inflicted
by serious criminal activity. Recent attempts to address the changing character and forms of transnational organized crime,
especially through the strengthening of mutual legal assistance by regional bodies such as ASEAN, are noted. These measures
have yet to develop into the cross-border institutional frameworks now found in Europe, and the level of effective co-operation
can only continue to improve. Countering organized crime in Asia also faces additional difficulties arising from the cultural
diversity, relative weakness of law enforcement in some states and the lack of common strategies in respect to illicit markets.
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9.
This study develops a causal model of the independent effect of organized crime, rule of law, and corruption on national wealth.
To measure the level of organized crime a Composite Organized Crime Index (COCI) is constructed combining data on the perceived
prevalence of organized crime, unsolved homicides, grand corruption, money-laundering and the extent of the black economy,
drawing on the World Economic Forum’s annual surveys among CEOs of larger companies, the Merchant International Group’s assessments
of investment risks in 150 countries, studies by the World Bank Institute, and official crime statistics. The findings of
the explorative analysis show that a political strategy of tolerating activities of local criminal groups in the hope of beneficial
effects on the wealth of a nation is unlikely to bring the expected results. Although some types of organized crime may bring
in significant revenues, tolerating Mafia-type activities implies letting the Trojan horse of racketeering and grand corruption
into the walls of government.
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10.
The dangers stemming from organized crime have been widely acknowledged in the academic literature, government reports, as
well as in popular discourse. This article focuses on the legislative efforts to define “organized crime” undertaken in Russia
and Canada. Neither country has yet devised a satisfactory legislative definition of the varied phenomenon that is organized
crime. Definitions in both jurisdictions are problematic due to their sweeping scope and insufficient delineation of a zone
of risk for the accused as well as law enforcement officials. However, striking a proper balance between security concerns
and human and civil rights in both countries will be problematic due to constant political pressure to “get tough on crime”
as well as due to the amorphous nature of the phenomenon of organized crime.
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11.
The problem of corporate crime rates has been the subject of debate, speculation and operationalization for decades, largely
stemming from the complexity of measuring this type of crime. Examining corporate environmental crime poses challenges and creates opportunities for advancing the discussion of corporate crime rates, but criminologists
are less familiar with environmental data. In the current paper, we review the strengths and weaknesses of existing environmental
data that can be used to construct the components of an environmental crime rate. We also present a corporate environmental
crime rate derived from data on violations of the Clean Water Act and describe problems with using it in real world data.
Implications for theory, practice and future research are discussed.
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12.
The rapid economic growth in China over recent decades has been accompanied by higher levels of crime, but there have been
few studies of the Chinese experience of criminal victimization. A recent victimization survey of a representative sample
of households in Tianjin represents a major effort to fill this gap in the literature. The present paper reviews the research
based on the Tianjin survey along with other studies of crime and criminal victimization in China that have been published
since 1990. We summarize the major findings, discuss the theoretical perspectives and methodological strategies that have
been applied, identify the limitations of the research to date, and offer suggestions for future research.
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13.
States are unique and individual entities. However, geographic proximity, a common history and fate may cause existential
threats to have common causes and solutions. To understand how, and why, states experience transnational organized crime as
a national security threat differently, it is necessary to learn about the states and the culture of organized crime in the
geographic region in which they are embedded. The objective here is to present the Post-Soviet Political Criminal Nexus as
a part of the identity of Newly Independent States in the Black Sea Region (Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine) which
poses an international security threat and impedes democratic development.
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14.
Offender profiling postulates that crime scene behavior should predict certain offender characteristics. The aim of this study
is to investigate the relationship between offender characteristics, situational factors, and body disposal patterns. Sequential
logistic regression analysis on a sample of 85 sexual murderers shows that those who were in a relationship at the time of
the crime and who present organized psychological characteristics are more likely to move the victim’s body after the homicide.
However, when the victim is older and a conflict with the offender occurred prior to the crime, the body is more likely to
be left at the crime scene. Implications for offender profiling are discussed in light of the results.
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15.
With varying degrees of enthusiasm, federal, state, and local governments had been investigating and prosecuting gangsters
since the late nineteenth century. Despite this relatively long history, the primary interpretation of the Apalachin arrests
lay in the belief that the New York State Police had uncovered proof of the existence of organized crime. This essay investigates
the reasons why there seemed to be an ongoing need to prove its existence, concluding that organized crime came to be defined
within the cultural and political agendas of Cold War America. Drawing on media accounts, government documents, archival sources,
and popular non-fiction, this essay argues that rather than the conclusive proof of the mafia, Apalachin is best viewed as
an exhibit in an ongoing argument about the existence and meaning of organized crime.
Lee Bernstein
Associate Professor of History at SUNY—New Paltz. He is the author of The Greatest Menace: Organized Crime in Cold War America. 相似文献
16.
Organized crime is often conceptualized as a business enterprise formed by actors motivated by profits. The Balkans represents
an ideal case for testing the extent to which assumptions about the image of actors involved in illegal arms trading can be
extrapolated to the macro-level of analysis. Focusing mainly on public discourse, this paper points to several thematic categories
of illicit arms trafficking: i) profit-oriented arms trafficking involving organized crime groups ii) trafficking of arms
for the purpose of arming criminal-terrorist formations and iii) state-sponsored illegal arms trafficking. Although economic
incentives appear strong in many cases, other cultural, social and political issues also frame the illicit arms market in
the region. We argue that both understanding and policing organized crime should also embrace the non-economic nature of this
type of criminal behavior.
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17.
After decades of neglect, a growing number of scholars have turned their attention to issues of crime and criminal justice
in the rural context. Despite this improvement, rural crime research is underdeveloped theoretically, and is little informed
by critical criminological perspectives. In this article, we introduce the broad tenets of a multi-level theory that links
social and economic change to the reinforcement of rural patriarchy and male peer support, and in turn, how they are linked
to separation/divorce sexual assault. We begin by addressing a series of misconceptions about what is rural, rural homogeneity
and commonly held presumptions about the relationship of rurality, collective efficacy (and related concepts) and crime. We
conclude by recommending more focused research, both qualitative and quantitative, to uncover specific link between the rural
transformation and violence against women.
This paper was presented at the 2006 annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Los Angeles, California. Some
of the research reported here was supported by National Institute of Justice Grant 2002-WG-BX-0004 and financial assistance
provided by the College of Arts and Sciences and the Office of the Vice President for Research at Ohio University. Arguments
and findings included in this article are those of the authors and do not represent the official position of the US Department
of Justice or Ohio University. Please send all correspondence to Walter S. DeKeseredy, e-mail: walter.dekeseredy@uoit.ca.
All of the names of the women who participated in DeKeseredy and colleagues’ rural Ohio study and who are quoted have been
changed to maintain confidentiality.
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18.
This article focuses on a research project conducted in six jurisdictions: England, The Netherlands, Germany, Australia, Venezuela,
and Brazil. These societies are very different ethnically, socially, politically, economically, historically and have wildly
different levels of crime. Their policing arrangements also differ significantly: how they are organised; how their officers
are equipped and trained; what routine operating procedures they employ; whether they are armed; and much else besides. Most
relevant for this research, they represent policing systems with wildly different levels of police shootings, Police in the
two Latin American countries represented here have a justified reputation for the frequency with which they shoot people,
whereas at the other extreme the police in England do not routinely carry firearms and rarely shoot anyone. To probe whether
these differences are reflected in the way that officers talk about the use of force, police officers in these different jurisdictions
were invited to discuss in focus groups a scenario in which police are thwarted in their attempt to arrest two youths (one
of whom is a known local criminal) by the youths driving off with the police in pursuit, and concludes with the youths crashing
their car and escaping in apparent possession of a gun, It might be expected that focus groups would prove starkly different,
and indeed they were, but not in the way that might be expected. There was little difference in affirmation of normative and
legal standards regarding the use of force. It was in how officers in different jurisdictions envisaged the circumstances
in which the scenario took place that led Latin American officers to anticipate that they would shoot the suspects, whereas
officers in the other jurisdictions had little expectation that they would open fire in the conditions as they imagined them
to be.
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19.
Intelligence gathering plays a vital role in the ‘war’ against money laundering. Particularly important in this intelligence
gathering process is the global network of Financial Intelligence Units (FIUs) fed by a host of auxiliary (primarily financial)
institutions required to report suspicious transactions. This paper briefly reviews the history of the international system
of anti-money laundering measures imposed on the financial industry and other regulated businesses, the development of the
global network of FIUs and their system of information gathering. It will examine some of the issues that arise from the regulatory
framework within which this information gathering takes place. It will also address the issue of instrumental clarity and
whether existing and new directives, requirements and approaches are sufficiently clear to enable reporting institutions on
the ‘front-line’ to operate effectively.
Liliya Gelemerova is a doctoral (PhD) student at Tilburg University and Senior Investigator at Nardello & Co.
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20.
This paper investigates the role of transnational organized crime in the democratisation process in the Central Asian area.
It examines the inherent connections that exist between the leading tribal families, political elites and organized crime,
and explores how criminal networks have proliferated in society and consequently in politics. The complete absence of a ruling
élite and striking economic issues left unsolved were the legacy that Soviet rule would leave to the newly independent Central
Asian Republics. After the fall of the former Soviet Union other, more profitable forms of transnational organized crime flourished.
According to the official statistics of the UNODC and the American State Department, 92% of the world’s heroin is produced
in Afghanistan. Of this, around 65% is smuggled into Europe and America along the Silk Road, and therefore through the five
Central Asian Republics and Russia. High levels of corruption in Central Asia heavily affect political and economic life.
The economies of the region have progressively become dominated by criminal activity with smuggling, trafficking and other
activities linked to transnational organized crime as the major source of income. Central Asia’s strategic location makes
this a global security concern.
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