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1.
Recent research has demonstrated that burglary clusters in space and time, resulting in temporal changes in crime hotspot
patterns. Offender foraging behavior would yield the observed pattern. The offender as forager hypothesis is tested by analyzing
patterns in two types of acquisitive crime, burglary and theft from motor vehicle (TFMV). Using a technique developed to detect
disease contagion confirms that both crime types cluster in space and time as predicted, but that the space–time clustering
of burglary is generally independent of that for TFMV. Police detections indicate that crimes of the same type occurring closest
to each other in space and time are those most likely to be cleared to the same offender(s), as predicted. The implications
of the findings for crime forecasting and crime linkage are discussed.
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2.
Using epidemiological techniques for testing disease contagion, it has recently been found that in the wake of a residential
burglary, the risk to nearby homes is temporarily elevated. This paper demonstrates the ubiquity of this phenomenon by analyzing
space–time patterns of burglary in 10 areas, located in five different countries. While the precise patterns vary, for all
areas, houses within 200 m of a burgled home were at an elevated risk of burglary for a period of at least two weeks. For
three of the five countries, differences in these patterns may partly be explained by simple differences in target density.
The findings inform theories of crime concentration and offender targeting strategies, and have implications for crime forecasting
and crime reduction more generally.
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3.
In this paper, data from the NCS and NCVS are developed for the purpose of describing long-term trends in male and female
violent victimization for the period 1973–2004. More specifically, gender-specific trends in violence are compared according
to crime type and victim–offender relationship. Despite their potential usefulness, these data have not been published previously.
The data reveal that the gender gap in robbery victimization has remained relatively stable while the gender gaps in aggravated
and simple assault victimization have narrowed over time. Results varied when the data were disaggregated by victim–offender
relationship. Male and female rates of nonstranger simple assault and nonstranger robbery were roughly equivalent throughout
the period, and the greater risk for male nonstranger aggravated assault that was evident three decades ago has largely disappeared.
The gender gap persists in stranger assault, but has narrowed somewhat because male rates of victimization have declined more
than female rates. In addition, male and female trends and the gender gap in nonlethal intimate partner violence differ from
the patterns established in intimate partner homicide studies. The paper concludes with a discussion of research that is needed
to understand why the gender gap in violent victimization has changed for some types of violence but not others, and how greater
attention to gender will improve efforts to understand crime trends.
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4.
Achieving a better understanding of the crime event in its spatio-temporal context is an important research area in criminology
with major implications for improving policy and developing effective crime prevention strategies. However, significant barriers
related to data and methods exist for conducting this type of research. The research requires micro-level data about individual
behavior that is difficult to obtain and methods capable of modeling the dynamic, spatio-temporal interaction of offenders,
victims, and potential guardians at the micro level. This paper presents simulation modeling as a method for addressing these
challenges. Specifically, agent-based modeling, when integrated with geographic information systems, offers the ability to
model individual behavior within a real environment. The method is demonstrated by operationalizing and testing routine activity
theory as it applies to the crime of street robbery. Model results indicate strong support for the basic premise of routine
activity theory; as time spent away from home increases, crime will increase. The strength of the method is in providing a
research platform for translating theory into models that can be discussed, shared, tested and enhanced with the goal of building
scientific knowledge.
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5.
This paper applied time series analysis to examine the nexus between firearm robberies and homicide in Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region (HK). Recent years have seen a reduction in firearm related offences in HK compared to Britain. For instance, only
three cases of firearm robbery in 2004 in HK (0.1% of all robbery; 2,237 incidents) involved genuine firearms, compared to
4,117 firearm robbery incidents (4% of all robbery) in Britain in the same year. This paper established a cross-correlation
coefficient of 0.50 at lag 0 for the annual rate of two serious crimes, genuine firearm robbery and homicide, after identifying
an ARMA(1,0) model from each time series (1972–2002). The results suggest that the prevalence of firearm robbery is moderately
associated with the prevalence of homicide in HK.
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6.
After decades of neglect, a growing number of scholars have turned their attention to issues of crime and criminal justice
in the rural context. Despite this improvement, rural crime research is underdeveloped theoretically, and is little informed
by critical criminological perspectives. In this article, we introduce the broad tenets of a multi-level theory that links
social and economic change to the reinforcement of rural patriarchy and male peer support, and in turn, how they are linked
to separation/divorce sexual assault. We begin by addressing a series of misconceptions about what is rural, rural homogeneity
and commonly held presumptions about the relationship of rurality, collective efficacy (and related concepts) and crime. We
conclude by recommending more focused research, both qualitative and quantitative, to uncover specific link between the rural
transformation and violence against women.
This paper was presented at the 2006 annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Los Angeles, California. Some
of the research reported here was supported by National Institute of Justice Grant 2002-WG-BX-0004 and financial assistance
provided by the College of Arts and Sciences and the Office of the Vice President for Research at Ohio University. Arguments
and findings included in this article are those of the authors and do not represent the official position of the US Department
of Justice or Ohio University. Please send all correspondence to Walter S. DeKeseredy, e-mail: walter.dekeseredy@uoit.ca.
All of the names of the women who participated in DeKeseredy and colleagues’ rural Ohio study and who are quoted have been
changed to maintain confidentiality.
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7.
The problem of corporate crime rates has been the subject of debate, speculation and operationalization for decades, largely
stemming from the complexity of measuring this type of crime. Examining corporate environmental crime poses challenges and creates opportunities for advancing the discussion of corporate crime rates, but criminologists
are less familiar with environmental data. In the current paper, we review the strengths and weaknesses of existing environmental
data that can be used to construct the components of an environmental crime rate. We also present a corporate environmental
crime rate derived from data on violations of the Clean Water Act and describe problems with using it in real world data.
Implications for theory, practice and future research are discussed.
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8.
The rapid economic growth in China over recent decades has been accompanied by higher levels of crime, but there have been
few studies of the Chinese experience of criminal victimization. A recent victimization survey of a representative sample
of households in Tianjin represents a major effort to fill this gap in the literature. The present paper reviews the research
based on the Tianjin survey along with other studies of crime and criminal victimization in China that have been published
since 1990. We summarize the major findings, discuss the theoretical perspectives and methodological strategies that have
been applied, identify the limitations of the research to date, and offer suggestions for future research.
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9.
We develop a mathematical framework aimed at analyzing repeat and near-repeat effects in crime data. Parsing burglary data
from Long Beach, CA according to different counting methods, we determine the probability distribution functions for the time
interval τ between repeat offenses. We then compare these observed distributions to theoretically derived distributions in
which the repeat effects are due solely to persistent risk heterogeneity. We find that risk heterogeneity alone cannot explain
the observed distributions, while a form of event dependence (boosts) can. Using this information, we model repeat victimization
as a series of random events, the likelihood of which changes each time an offense occurs. We are able to estimate typical
time scales for repeat burglary events in Long Beach by fitting our data to this model. Computer simulations of this model
using these observed parameters agree with the empirical data.
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10.
The current study examines spatial dependence in robbery rates for a sample of 1,056 cities with 25,000 or more residents
over the 2000–2003 period. Although commonly considered in some macro-level research, spatial processes have not been examined
in relation to city-level variation in robbery. The results of our regression analyses suggest that city robbery rates are
not spatially independent. We find that spatial dependence is better accounted for by spatial error models than by spatial
lag models. Further exploration of various spatial weights matrices indicates that robbery rates of cities within the same
state are related to robbery rates of other cities within the same state, regardless of their proximity. Our analyses illustrate
how systematic inquiry into spatial processes can alert researchers to important omitted variable biases and identify intriguing
problems for future research.
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11.
This article focuses on a research project conducted in six jurisdictions: England, The Netherlands, Germany, Australia, Venezuela,
and Brazil. These societies are very different ethnically, socially, politically, economically, historically and have wildly
different levels of crime. Their policing arrangements also differ significantly: how they are organised; how their officers
are equipped and trained; what routine operating procedures they employ; whether they are armed; and much else besides. Most
relevant for this research, they represent policing systems with wildly different levels of police shootings, Police in the
two Latin American countries represented here have a justified reputation for the frequency with which they shoot people,
whereas at the other extreme the police in England do not routinely carry firearms and rarely shoot anyone. To probe whether
these differences are reflected in the way that officers talk about the use of force, police officers in these different jurisdictions
were invited to discuss in focus groups a scenario in which police are thwarted in their attempt to arrest two youths (one
of whom is a known local criminal) by the youths driving off with the police in pursuit, and concludes with the youths crashing
their car and escaping in apparent possession of a gun, It might be expected that focus groups would prove starkly different,
and indeed they were, but not in the way that might be expected. There was little difference in affirmation of normative and
legal standards regarding the use of force. It was in how officers in different jurisdictions envisaged the circumstances
in which the scenario took place that led Latin American officers to anticipate that they would shoot the suspects, whereas
officers in the other jurisdictions had little expectation that they would open fire in the conditions as they imagined them
to be.
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12.
This article provides the background to an international project on use of force by the police that was carried out in seven
countries. Force is often considered to be the defining characteristic of policing and much research has been conducted on
the determinants, prevalence and control of the use of force, particularly in the United States. However, little work has
looked at police officers’ own views on the use of force, in particular the way in which they justify it. Using a hypothetical
encounter developed for this project, researchers in each country conducted focus groups with police officers in which they
were encouraged to talk about the use of force. The results show interesting similarities and differences across countries
and demonstrate the value of using this kind of research focus and methodology.
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13.
The spectacular business scandals in recent years have led both the legislative and business companies to rethink and redesign
their strategies. This article analyzes the worldwide impact of reforms in economic crime legislation emanating from the USA.
Empirical data are reported showing that the US regulations are generating a spillover effect spreading beyond its sphere
of operation. It is particularly notable that international stock-exchange-listed companies are orienting themselves increasingly
toward the legal standards of the USA.
Translated from the German by Jonathan Harrow, Bielefeld.
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14.
A fundamental assumption in criminal profiling is that criminals who exhibit similar crime scene actions have similar background
characteristics. We tested this so-called homology assumption by first classifying, with pre-existing typologies, a sample
of arsons ( N = 87) and robberies ( N = 177) into different crime types and then comparing the background characteristics of criminals who committed the various
crime types. Results showed that using pre-existing typologies to classify the crimes into mutually exclusive types was not
easily accomplished. Notwithstanding classification difficulties, the homology assumption was violated in 56% of the comparisons of background characteristics between the different arson types and in 67% of the comparisons of
background characteristics between the different robbery types. Overall, 73% of the effect sizes for the associations between
crime type and background characteristics were low to moderate ( V < .3; d < .2). The implications of these findings for profiling practices are discussed.
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15.
The National Research Council’s report on evaluating anticrime programs contains sensible suggestions for improving evaluation
research in criminal justice but neglects the important role of substantive theory in linking evaluations of anticrime initiatives
to variation in crime rates across time and place. A working knowledge of crime rates is essential for designing and evaluating
anticrime programs. This essay calls for the development of a policy evaluation infrastructure that would support the continuous
monitoring of crime rates, generate knowledge of crime-producing conditions, and link evaluation research findings to one
another and to expected policy outcomes, notably crime reduction.
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16.
A substantial body of empirical research examines how the huge expansion in incarceration in the United States since the early
1970s has influenced crime. These studies merge the effects of three conceptually distinct paths by which incarceration might
reduce crime: general deterrence, specific deterrence and incapacitation. This issue of the Journal focuses specifically on
the incapacitation path. This Introduction reviews the individual papers and offers the editors’ judgment as to the plausibility
of progress using different research strategies. It emphasizes the potential for using individual level data to take advantage
of natural experiments.
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17.
This paper discusses issues related to measuring organized crime as they have become manifest in the Dutch contribution to
the EU Organised Crime Threat Assessment (OCTA). It intends to convey to a wider academic community certain issues of definition,
methodology and accountability, understanding the NTA process in terms of the communication of risks in a context of competitive
defining institutions.
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19.
This paper describes the UK’s anti-money laundering and asset recovery laws and the aims and objectives behind the regime
since the introduction of the Proceeds of Crime Act in 2002. It then evaluates the regime in terms of the amount of criminal
assets recovered, its application against organised crime and its impact upon the price of illegal drugs.
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20.
A question that emerges from recent research on the relationship between economic conditions and street crimes committed for
monetary gain concerns the effect of changing economic conditions on violent crime. I propose that the economy stimulates
violent crime indirectly through its effect on acquisitive crime. This hypothesis is evaluated in fixed-effects panel models
of change in acquisitive crime and homicide rates between 1970 and 2006. The analysis indicates that collective perceptions
of economic conditions have a significant effect on an index of acquisitive crime and an indirect effect, through acquisitive
crime, on homicide. Consistent with this result, the effect of collective economic perceptions is stronger for felony than
argument-related homicides. A promising focus for future research is the role of underground markets in the production of
both property and violent crime.
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