REASSESSING THE CHINA–AUSTRALIA FREE TRADE AGREEMENT NEGOTIATION PROCESS

The negotiation of the China–Australia Free Trade Agreement (ChAFTA) has been in process since May 2005 and has survived two changes of government in Australia. The negotiations have been on and off for many years. Recent development, however, indicates that the two countries are finally close to strike a deal. This paper examines the difficulties that bedevilled the negotiation process and how the circumstances have changed now. It also examines the way forward from both Australia and China’s perspectives.     

The European Trips-Plus Model and The Arab World: From Co-Operation to Association— A New Era in the Global IPRS Regime?

The advocation of stronger and higher levels of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) protection has been on the rise in recent years, particularly since the establishment of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in 1995. Although its establishment signalled the beginning of a new phase in the protection of IPRs internationally, no more than a decade later, it is seen that such a regime is still undergoing a number of significant changes. In this regard, the rise of bilateralism and the retreat of multilateralism resulted in the so-called ‹TRIPS-Plus’ recipe in which developing countries are increasingly giving way to the demands of the industrialised countries through incorporating higher levels of IPRs protection domestically. Although the USA has often been viewed as the primary advocator and enforcer of the TRIPS-Plus recipe globally, this article shows that in fact the European Union (EU) advocated the TRIPS-Plus recipe long before the USA. Thus, this article discusses the case of the European TRIPS-Plus model with the Arab World as a clear demonstration of such a trend. Developing and Arab countries are now faced with two determined superpowers acting at both the unilateral and bilateral levels to achieve their desired higher standards of IPRs protection worldwide. This will further erode the flexibilities of the TRIPS Agreement, and will entail grave repercussions for both the developing and Arab countries. LLM, PhD, Lecturer in Law, University of Central Lancashire (UCLAN), UK. The author may be contacted at mel-said@uclan.ac.uk     

Four Lessons for Developing Countries from the Trade Negotiations Over Access to Medicines

After the Agreement on the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) came into operation in 1995 developing countries have found themselves in a process of continual negotiation over intellectual property rights and access to medicines. These negotiations have taken place in the World Trade Organization and in the context of free trade agreements. The paper suggests that the only real win for developing countries has been the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health in 2001. What have been the lessons for developing countries in a decade of negotiations over access to medicines? Drawing on themes of rule complexity and regulatory ritualism the paper discusses four key lessons for developing countries. It concludes by arguing that developing countries will do better if they adopt a networked governance approach to negotiation rather than continuing to rely on traditional coalition formation.     

美国反补贴法中“因果关系”的确定及其对我国的启示

在反补贴调查中,"因果关系"的审查和确定是决定反补贴措施是否公平合理的关键所在,各国对此做法不同、争论很大.在"因果关系"的确定上,WTO补贴与反补贴措施协议>的规定存在不明确之处,各国对其保留有相当程度的解释空间.美国反补贴法在因果关系上的用语与<补贴与反补贴措施协议>不同,同时还存在两个重要的争议因果关系是应存在于"进口"与"损害"之间,还是存在于"补贴"与"损害"之间;应同时决定还是别决定损害与因果关系.在因果关系的具体分析方法上,我国可借鉴美国的"整体分析法".     

国际贸易、贸易政策与知识产权协议的执行措施

Trips协议给发展中国家带来了意料之外的好处：首先，发展中国家可根据本国国情自行确定知识产权执行措施；其次，知识产权与贸易挂钩也给发展中国家提供了以前没有的且是可靠的威慑手段：在自己国内市场中止相关国家知识产权保护。将知识产权纳入到多边贸易体制，发展中国家可以拿发达国家的其他贸易问题，就本国知识产权执行水平与发达国家讨价还价，发达国家的知识产权人将会发现：它们已经卷入到和自己无直接利害关系的国内政治博弈当中了。     

世界贸易组织补贴规则研究

世界贸易组织法律体系中关于补贴问题主要规定在三个法律文件之中,即《补贴与反补贴措施协议》(以下简称《补贴协议》)、《农业协议》和《服务贸易总协定》。《补贴协议》只处理影响货物贸易的补贴,《农业协议》对农产品的补贴在《补贴协议》的大框架内有一些特殊规定,《服务贸易总协定》则另外规定了关于服务贸易的补贴。由于发达国家与发展中国家的经济实力的巨大悬殊以及它们对农业补贴的不同政策,从而导致了在货物贸易的补贴规则方面,两类国家之间存在着尖锐的利益不平衡,发展中国家必须为实现其与发达国家实质上的平等而继续奋斗。     

WTO《农业协定》及农产品贸易规则执行评价（上）

2008年7月29日在日内瓦持续9天的多哈回合部长会议谈判，由于未能在关键的农业问题上达成一致，无果而终。通过对十余年来《农业协定》及农产品贸易规则的执行情况进行回顾，全面分析发达国家及发展中国家执行协定的情况，找出各自的特点、存在的问题与不足，探讨谈判失败的原因和教训。第一部分分析发达国家的执行情况及农产品贸易特点；通过分析美国陆地棉案评价美国农产品补贴制度的实质以及专家纽裁决的意义。第二部分分析发展中国家的执行情况及农产品贸易特点。第三部分分析中国《农业协定》的执行情况，农产品贸易特点以及中国的立场。     

The Protection of Geographical Indications After Doha: Quo Vadis?

During the last twenty years the international protection ofgeographical indications (GIs) has experienced a worldwide resurgencespurred by both the greater need and the additional opportunitiesoffered by the global marketplace for the diversification ofagricultural products and foodstuffs. The Doha Ministerial Declarationlends support to developing countries that are seeking formsof knowledge less than high technology that they have the capacityto exploit. June 2005 saw the European Communities submit aradical proposal, designed to also meet the needs of developingcountries that would amend the Trade-Related Aspects of IntellectualProperty (TRIPS) Agreement in favour of a mandatory multilateralsystem of registration for all products. Yet, World Trade Organization(WTO) Members are as divided over their capacity to take advantageof GI protection no less than they are as to the means of regulation.To date, no ready solution to the further global harmonizationof GIs has been found. This paper examines the two major regulatorymodels advanced by the European Union and the United Statesof America for the protection of GIs. In the light of the DohaDevelopment Agenda, the authors argue in favour of an incrementalapproach that would allow developing countries the flexibilityto adjust additional protection in accordance with their levelof economic development.     

WTO《农业协定》及农产品贸易规则执行评价（下）

2008年7月29日在日内瓦持续9天的多哈回合部长会议谈判，由于未能在关键的农业问题上达成一致，无果而终。通过对十余年来《农业协定》及农产品贸易规则的执行情况进行回顾，全面分析发达国家及发展中国家执行协定的情况，找出各自的特点、存在的问题与不足，探讨谈判失败的原因和教训。第一部分分析发达国家的执行情况及农产品贸易特点；通过分析美国陆地棉案评价美国农产品补贴制度的实质以及专家组裁决的意义。第二部分分析发展中国家的执行情况及农产品贸易特点。第三部分分析中国《农业协定》的执行情况，农产品贸易特点以及中国的立场。     

从MAI看综合性国际投资多边立法的困境和出路

经合组织（ＯＥＣＤ）在１９９５年到１９９８年起草的多边投资协定（ＭＡＩ）草案,是一个高度自由化性质的多边投资条约草案,集中反映了西方国家关于自由化性质的国际投资多边立法的种种要求,也表露出ＭＡＩ谈判方之间的种种矛盾和冲突,这些情况值得引起发展中国家的高度关注。ＯＥＣＤ的ＭＡＩ计划的搁浅,不仅说明发达国家对于何谓可接受的自由化多边投资规则尚不能形成一致的意见,也预示了未来综合性多边投资条约谈判应遵循的基本法则,即能够为各国广泛接受的综合性多边投资条约,必须同时反映不同国家的利益需求,谋求国家间利益的适当平衡。只有沿着建立新的国际经济秩序的方向前进,国际社会才有可能确立一个具有普遍效力的综合性、全球性多边投资条约。     

WTO《政府采购协定》的几个问题

政府采购是国际贸易自由化面临的最重要问题之一 ,乌拉圭回合达成的《政府采购协定》 ,是一个没有完全纳入WTO多边纪律的复边协定。在WTO框架内推进政府采购自由化的首要任务 ,是扩大《政府采购协定》的成员数量。发展中国家加入WTO《政府采购协定》的重要条件 ,是参照GATT的经验作法 ,允许发展中国家和最不发达国家继续保持相当程度和可接受形式的民族产业保护措施。中国开放政府采购市场和加入WTO《政府采购协定》的准备工作 ,应当是充分利用政府采购贸易壁垒 ,通过全国性统一立法 ,尽快建立起高度竞争性的政府采购市场机制和符合国际通常作法的政府采购管理制度 ,提高国内产业在政府采购市场中的竞争力和对政府采购国际自由化的适应能力。     

Narcotics interdiction at sea: UK‐US cooperation

This article examines, from a legal perspective, the nature and extent of UK‐US co‐operation in the interdiction of the traffic in narcotic drugs by sea. In particular, it addresses the background to, the provisions of and practice under the 13 November 1981 Exchange of Notes between these two states on this subject and draws certain conclusions concerning both the adequacy of that Agreement and whether it constitutes an appropriate model for use elsewhere.     

The Dayton Peace Agreemnet and Human Rights in Bosnia and Herzegovina

The article provides a short insight into the functioning of one of the most interesting institution established by the Dayton Pace Agreement, that is the protecting machinery of human rights. It examines why and how the Agreement on Human Rights has been adopted wthin the Dayton strustures, reflects onthe role of the established quasiinternational organs within the Bosnian legal system. It pays special attention to the competence and practice of the Human Rights Chamberm which is the highest judicial body in the country protecting human rights.     

Juridical and constitutional implications of CARICOM treaty practice

In a case involving a CARICOM member state in relation to the Agreement Establishing the Council for Legal Education (CLE), several law students of one member state party to the Agreement were denied their entitlement to pursue professional studies in a school of law established for the purpose in another member state because the second member state had not implemented the relevant provision of the CLE Agreement. The CLE in the member state concerned pleaded the absence of an enacting provision in the Legal Profession Act as the ground for not observing the provisions of the Agreement. No action was brought at the international level by the state of the students aggrieved to vindicate their rights and the action brought by the students themselves at the municipal level did not and could not succeed. Following an overview of CARICOM treaty practice, this article examines the effects of unincorporated treaties in the light of dualism, to which doctrine the overriding majority of CARICOM states subscribe.     

The Winds of Change Blow Again: The World Trade Organisation's Impact on the European Community's Common Agricultural Policy

This paper examines the legal relationship between the World Trade Organisation'sAgreement on Agriculture and the European Community's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), in light of the reopening of the WTO Agricultural Negotiations in the Millennium Round. It also examines the impact of the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture, on the Mac Sharry reforms of the CAP. An in depth study of the EC's Cereals Common Organisation is included. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

How Much Credit for Export Credit Support Under the SCM Agreement?

This contribution examines the degree of policy space the WTOleaves its Members to support export credits for non-agriculturalgoods. In the light of existing case law, it illustrates thatexport credit support offered by export credit agencies thataims at complementing the private trade finance market wouldin principle be prohibited under the SCM Agreement. However,while some low-income countries can rely on a specific exceptionon the prohibition on export subsidies, all WTO Members can,on the basis of the Illustrative List of Export Subsidies, justifycertain subsidized export credits that are in accordance withthe interest rate provisions of the OECD Arrangement. But, asthe case law and the OECD Arrangement currently stand, subsidizedexport credit guarantees and insurance as well as subsidizedshort-term export credits cannot rely on this safe haven. Hence,the article shows that export credit agencies, except for thoseof some low-income countries, cannot play a complementary roleto the private market in offering such support. Moreover, thiscontribution demonstrates that export credit support in accordancewith the safe haven might still be countervailable and actionable.Finally, it is argued that an exception which can be modifiedby a subgroup of WTO Members, like the safe haven, can no longerbe accepted.     

东盟投资区的法律评析

东盟各国于1998年成立的东盟投资区旨在建立一个较为统一的、自由的、透明的"单一投资区",增加东盟对外国资本的吸引力。《东盟投资区框架协议》是东盟进行投资合作的法律基础,是东盟自由贸易区在投资领域最具决定性的法律文件。在分析《东盟投资区框架协议》的基础上,对东盟投资区进行了法律方面的评价。     

Achieving the 1.5 °C objective: just implementation through a right to (sustainable) development approach

Achieving the 1.5 °C objective of the Paris Agreement on Climate Change in a just manner requires equitably sharing the responsibilities and rights that relate to this objective. This paper examines how international law concerning the Right to Promote (Sustainable) Development can contribute to determining what would be a “just” approach to achieving the 1.5 °C objective. This entails building on both the Right to Development (RtD) and the Right to Promote Sustainable Development (RtPSD). The RtD is a central notion within international human rights law and the RtPSD has been adopted under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Based on a literature review and legal analysis, we argue that, although the two Rights are prima facie different, in the context of the unanimously adopted Agenda 2030, including the SDGs, they partly complement and partly merge with each other. Together they provide a framework for assessing how a just transition towards a low greenhouse gas development process could be achieved and what this means for phasing out fossil fuels especially in the context of prospective oil producing countries.     

Political Law Notes in Conclusion of the 39th Federal General Election held in Canada on 23 January 2006

Traditionally, the discovery of natural resources raises the hope of such a state to secure wealth and economic growth. However, history shows that in some developing countries, particularly the resource-rich, many citizens do not actually benefit from the resource revenues. This is due to factors such as mismanagement of the resource revenues, lack of transparency and accountability and corruption among others. All of these factors are characterised by what is known as the ‘resource curse’ phenomenon. This article examines the resource curse phenomenon with reference to Nigeria’s oil-rich Niger Delta region. It considers a potential legal instrument, which is the Impact and Benefit Agreement (IBA) that could be used to resolve some of the problems characterised by the resource curse phenomenon in the region. Using Canada as a reference point, the article demonstrates that the adoption of IBAs can be an alternative legal strategy for resolving the socio-economic and environmental symptoms of the resource curse in Nigeria’s oil-rich region.     

WTO ministerial conference adopts declaration on TRIPS and public health

In November 2001, the 4th Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization adopted a Ministerial Declaration on public health and the WTO's Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (the "TRIPS Agreement"). The declaration represents a modest advance in addressing concerns that strict patent laws, and threats of trade sanctions, will be a barrier to most of the world's people with HIV/AIDS accessing affordable medicines. The full significance of the declaration remains to be seen, as it depends on what political impact it has at the WTO and on its member countries, and what legal impact it will have in the interpretation of the TRIPS Agreement.