Mind the Gap: Interface Problems between EC Chemicals Law and Sectoral Environmental Legislation

Amidst the debate on risks to human beings and the environment resulting from chemicals being used on an increasingly large scale, the European Community's proposed Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) Regulation presents a new approach. However, under this new legislation it cannot be guaranteed that all problems that have been experienced under the existing EC chemicals legislation will be addressed satisfactorily. One of the problematic aspects is the question of how chemicals legislation, on the one hand, and sectoral environmental legislation, on the other hand (i.e. specific legislation referring to specific environmental media such as water, air, soil, etc.), complement one another. This article outlines these interface problems against the background of existing legislation and REACH.     

欧盟REACH法规与GATT／WTO规则的一致性分析

随着REACH法规的实施，与该法规有关的争议将极有可能最终在WTO框架下加以解决。不仅REACH法规体现的保护人类健康和环境的立法理念符合WTO倡导的可持续发展原则，REACH法规与GATT／WTO协议基本原则，如国民待遇原则、贸易障碍最小化原则、透明度原则等也保持了一致，同时，REACH法规也满足了GATT／WTO协议例外规则的要求。有理由相信，REACH法规将会经受住依据GATT／WTO协议提起的质疑。     

GMOs in the Internal Market: New Legislation on National Flexibility

In an area where until now national autonomy has been tenaciously resisted, new EU legislation provides Member States with ‘flexibility to decide whether or not they wish to cultivate GMOs on their territory’. This forces attention on to the subtle, and not so subtle, ways in which internal market law constrains political actors in the EU. But it is similarly suggestive of how political actors might contribute to the evolution of the internal market. As well as exploring this relationship between the new legislation and internal market law, this article reflects on the ways in which lessons from the past have been addressed by legislators. Whilst it takes somewhat seriously the politics of GMOs, the new legislation simultaneously reinforces some of the limitations of our dominant models for generating knowledge, including the EU's problematic dichotomy between facts and values, risk assessment and risk management.     

Testing Toxicity: Proof and Precaution in Canada's Chemicals Management Plan

This article explores questions of proof and precaution in the context of Canada's new Chemicals Management Plan. That plan includes a bold initiative known as the 'Challenge', under which the government has identified 200 high priority chemicals for which it is 'predisposed' to a finding of toxicity. The presumption will operate unless the challenged stakeholders submit 'information' sufficient to rebut it. Through comparison with the European REACH regulation, this article explores exactly what burdens have been shifted, to whom and why. It also evaluates the significance of this move for the governance of chemicals in Canada and for the health of Canadians. It looks specifically at the case of Bisphenol A, which was one of the 200 chemicals included in the Challenge, and was recently declared toxic under that process. The Challenge forces us to confront the 'dilemma of industry data', which complicates the debate over a shifted burden of proof in the context of chemicals management .     

Globalizing Regulation: Reaching Beyond the Borders of Chemical Safety

This article argues that although globalization can benefit both exporters and importers of regulation in absolute terms, it may turn the globalization of regulation into a game with relative winners and losers. Using the EU REACH Regulation of chemicals as a case study, it explores the normative, social, economic, and strategic reasons that push the EU to promote the global adoption of REACH. Notwithstanding its attractions, rules globalization may result in a mismatch between global norms and local priorities, particularly for developing countries. It reduces regulatory diversity, and amplifies the strengths but equally the weaknesses of the dominant regulatory framework. While it can foster international trade through mutual recognition of regulatory decisions and the development of transnational regulatory frameworks, it increases the likelihood of conflict and trade flow desequilibria. The article calls for further careful consideration of rules globalization, so that harmonization does not come at the expense of local interests and values.     

欧盟统一的法定审计制度:挑战与改革

欧盟公司法的统一是不断向前推进的,有关法定审计的第8号公司法指令是欧盟公司法的组成部分.本世纪初在美国及欧盟发生的财务丑闻加快了欧盟强化法定审计独立性及法定审计责任的改革.以公司治理为背景,主要分析了欧盟修订法定审计指令的考量因素、对法定审计独立性的强化措施、有关法定审计的形式选择以及尚未解决的问题,指出欧盟法定审计的改革受到美国《萨班斯法案》以及欧盟成员国内法的影响,而且,这一改革还将持续进行,并且也影响着包括中国在内的其他国家的相关立法.     

Essential and Non-essential Measures: Delegation of Powers in EU Securities Regulation

This article examines the new regulatory process in the regulation of EU securities markets, as proposed by the Wise Men Committee and welcomed by the Council and the Parliament. The new structure involves inter alia the creation of a 'comitology' committee and recognises two layers of legislation: essential measures that will be enacted through the normal co-decision process on the one hand, and more detailed technical and 'non-essential' measures, which will be decided by the new committee and the Commission, on the other. It is believed that the new structure will respond to the need for speed, efficiency and flexibility in securities regulation. However, the starting point for discussion and the decisive question is how one can distinguish between these two levels of legislative measures. Although the Wise Men Committee does not give sufficient guidance on this issue, it is alleged that the success of the proposed regime will heavily depend on the clear definition and distinction between essential and non-essential measures. The theoretical exercise of this article involves an analysis of the delegation issues arising from the proposal and the identification of some potentially useful guiding principles and criteria derived from primary and secondary Community legislation and case law as well as from inter-institutional agreements. Its ultimate goal is a proposal for the adoption of common principles, criteria and dividing lines at EU level.     

论英国的分时度假立法

英国是欧盟成员国中最早制定分时度假专门立法的国家,欧盟分时度假指令也是在该国的推动下出台的。因此,研究英国分时度假立法,对我国将来的立法应有一定的借鉴价值。从英国分时度假法的立法背景出发,重点介绍了英国立法的内容及其重大修订,并做出相应评述。     

The new EU cybersecurity framework: The NIS Directive,ENISA's role and the General Data Protection Regulation

The NIS Directive is the first horizontal legislation undertaken at EU level for the protection of network and information systems across the Union. During the last decades e-services, new technologies, information systems and networks have become embedded in our daily lives. It is by now common knowledge that deliberate incidents causing disruption of IT services and critical infrastructures constitute a serious threat to their operation and consequently to the functioning of the Internal Market and the Union. This paper first discusses the Directive's addressees particularly with regard to their compliance obligations as well as Member States’ obligations as regards their respective national strategies and cooperation at EU level. Subsequently, the critical role of ENISA in implementing the Directive, as reinforced by the proposal for a new Regulation on ENISA (the EU Cybersecurity Act), is brought forward, before elaborating upon the, inevitable, relationship of the NIS Directive with EU's General Data Protection Regulation.     

欧盟区域刑事合作进程中的制度缺陷与对策——从《马斯特里赫特条约》到《里斯本条约》

从《马斯特里赫特条约》到《里斯本条约》,随着一体化进程的不断发展,欧盟逐步加强了对内部区域刑事合作的影响。但是,这种变化的＂代价＂则分别体现为：成员国全体一致的决策机制、＂框架决定＂立法中的＂民主赤字＂,以及成员国利用＂紧急刹车＂条款以规避关乎其切身利益的敏感立法的适用等。本文重点探讨这些制度缺陷,进而评析欧盟在相关问题上的对策。     

欧盟核安全立法的新发展及其对中国的启示

欧盟一直重视核安全立法,《建立欧洲原子能共同体条约》缔造了欧盟成员国和平利用核能的合作框架,它在一个集中的监控系统下保证了欧盟核能的供应安全。欧盟在2011年3月福岛第一核电站事故后,加快推进核安全方面法律和政策的制定进程,尤其在放射性废物和核废料安全、辐射防护基本安全方面都采取了最新的立法措施,确保欧盟核能在保证安全的基础上正常发展。我国应借鉴欧盟经验,坚持国际核安全标准,加强核废料和放射性废物安全管理立法,建立较为完善的核安全法律框架。     

Financial instruments entail liabilities: Ether,bitcoin, and litecoin do not

The financial assets that are subject to major EU financial legislation (i.e. (designated types of) financial instruments) have traditionally been defined in a largely exemplary and circular manner. The recent proliferation of ‘non-traditional’ financial assets, such as cryptocurrencies and stablecoins, is increasingly challenging the viability of these pragmatic financial asset definitions. Through the analysis of the technologies and functionalities underpinning non-traditional financial assets, legal scholarship has aimed to categorize novel assets within the existing framework of financial asset definitions. Although a solid understanding of e.g. distributed ledger applications and cryptography appears a prerequisite for future policy and legislative interventions, contemporary EU financial legislation is mostly indifferent to the technologies on which financial assets may be wired. Categorizations based on the purposes that non-traditional assets may serve (i.e. payment, utility, and investment) are more relevant to financial law, but suffer from subjectivity because they depend on the asset usage by the asset holder. Against this backdrop, this paper proposes a novel systematization of non-traditional assets that is based upon the conceptual substructure of the assets within the scope of EU financial legislation. More specifically, this paper submits that, irrespective of underlying technologies and functionalities, all assets that are subject to major EU financial legislation have a conceptual common denominator: they entail the liability of an entity and, hence, have intrinsic value. The proposed categorization singles out a well-defined group of novel financial assets that is not subject to EU financial law (i.e. assets that only have extrinsic value). Different from functionality- and technology-based categorizations, the suggested approach allows to eradicate some ambiguities that are present in the existing taxonomies. By exploring the conceptual common denominator of the financial assets that are subject to EU financial legislation, this paper aims to foster debate on the circular and exemplary character of financial asset definitions in EU financial legislation in general and the relation of these definitions to novel types of financial assets in particular.     

欧盟环境责任立法对中国的启示

欧盟环境侵权赔偿立法的整个过程,对环境损害的救济方式经历了由民法为主向行政法的转变。前后立法模式的变化,对环境损害赔偿法的体系、功能和运行产生了深远的影响。欧盟的一些国家在环境民事赔偿责任领域通过了被认为具有先驱性的单行法,这些法律在责任主体、适用范围、责任基础、举证责任、赔偿范围等方面做出了非常细致的规定。我国正在着手制定环境损害赔偿法,欧盟环境侵权赔偿立法对我国具有重要的借鉴意义。     

欧盟《分时度假指令》研究

<欧盟分时度假指令>经过成员国的转换,成为成员国规制分时度假市场的重要立法.尽管它对分时度假的市场秩序起到一定的规范、整顿作用,但指令只是对分时度假提出最低限度的要求,且对分时度假的界定过于严格,以致没有实现保护分时度假及类似产品的消费者的预期目的.介绍了指令的出台背景、内容,并作出相应评述,以为我国将来立法提供前车之鉴.     

生态补偿法律机制研究

生态补偿法律机制是实现环境资源有偿使用的重要制度和手段.美国、德国、澳大利亚等国家在构建生态补偿法律机制方面的成功经验值得中国借鉴.中国建立生态补偿法律机制非常必要,但还存在着缺乏生态补偿专门立法以及相关法律规定中补偿主体不明确、补偿方式较单一、补偿管理不规范以及补偿标准不明确等问题.针对这些问题,提出了建立生态补偿法律机制的建议.     

Here comes the ‘cybernators’!

The EU Framework Decision 2005/222/JHA on attacks against information systems addresses the core of computer-related crime by a harmonisation instrument that approximates criminal law rules and facilitates judicial cooperation for illegal access to information systems (hacking), illegal interference with information systems and intentional deletion, damaging, deterioration, alteration, suppression or rendering inaccessible of computer data. The Framework Decision is expected to close existing legal loopholes in some legislation which has allowed criminals, such as hackers, to walk free after causing severe damage. However, the new law is unevenly implemented and will cripple the work of security experts testing the systems as well as stifle online public protest.     

欧盟非合同义务法律适用统一化——以《罗马条例Ⅱ》为中心

《罗马条例Ⅱ》的诞生,标志着欧盟国际私法统一化的最新发展——非合同义务领域法律适用的统一,从而使非合同义务的法律适用增加了一种“超国家”法律渊源。而且,统一的内容涉及侵权或不法行为、不当得利、无因管理等非合同之债的主要方面,统一的法律选择力求在法律适用的确定性与灵活性、管辖权选择与内容定向法律选择、社会公共利益与个人利益等方面达到平衡。欧盟非合同义务法律适用的统一化给中国国际私法立法以启示。     

后“SchremsⅡ案”时期欧盟数据跨境流动法律监管的演进及我国的因应

“SchremsⅡ案”对以隐私权和数据保护为核心构建的欧盟数据跨境流动规则体系产生重大影响,它要求无论使用何种数据跨境流动工具,都必须确保第三国能够提供与欧盟同等的保护水平。在该案的影响下,《欧盟基本权利宪章》在数据保护领域的地位进一步提高,保障措施的适用愈发严苛,欧洲数据保护委员会在数据保护领域将扮演更重要的角色,数据跨境流动欧盟法规则与国际贸易法的不兼容问题日益凸显。欧盟虽然结合SchremsⅡ案的判决完善了对数据跨境的法律监管,但依然没有减少外界对其监管合理性的质疑。我国对数据跨境流动的监管存在着配套立法不健全、规则可操作性差、多元价值失衡、缺乏内外联动的“中国方案”等问题。对此,应完善我国相关立法,加强中欧国际合作,共同引领构建数据跨境流动的国际规则。     

European national news

The regular article tracking developments at the national level in key European countries in the area of IT and communications – co-ordinated by Herbert Smith LLP and contributed by firms across Europe. This column provides a concise alerting service of important national developments in key European countries. Part of its purpose is to complement the Journal's feature articles and briefing notes by keeping readers abreast of what is currently happening “on the ground” at a national level in implementing EU level legislation and international conventions and treaties. Where an item of European National News is of particular significance, CLSR may also cover it in more detail in the current or a subsequent edition.     

从相互协助到相互承认——欧盟刑事取证立法变迁探析

欧盟刑事取证立法建立在两个不同原则上,一是传统的相互协助基础上的立法,一是1999年坦佩雷会议后,相互承认基础上的立法;这两种立法在欧盟范围内并存。从未来发展看,相互承认基础上的立法将逐步取代相互协助基础上的立法。欧盟理事会2008年12月通过的《欧盟证据令》是欧盟在相互承认基础上取代原有刑事取证立法的第一步,对原有立法进行了制度性革新。欧盟刑事取证立法在取得显著进步的同时,在相互承认原则和公民基本权利保障等方面也面临着诸多挑战。