正义天平的平衡——论英美法中约因原则到允诺禁反言原则的演进

约因原则和允诺禁反言原则是荚美契约法上最重要的因素,其在历史的发展过程中有着产生的先后顺序。但从法律的价值上看,都是人们对正义的追求。允诺禁反言原则在约因原则的基础上得以确立,实质上是对形式正义和实质正义的平衡。     

英美合同法上的允诺禁反言规则与启示

允诺禁反言规则突破并补充了传统的"交易约因论",逐步发展成为英美合同法中的一项重要规则。允诺禁反言规则具有特定的构成要件,同时与缔约过失责任存在一定的联系和区别。在对允诺禁反言进行详细研究的基础上对其进行有益借鉴将对我国合同法的完善大有裨益。     

论英美法中约因原则至允诺禁反言原则的演进——以当事人利益保护为视角

英美法中从约因原则至允诺禁反言原则的演进,从当事人利益保护角度而言,是契约法维护合同所追求之期待利益至信赖利益的发展与完善,体现出社会需要与法制活动的双向促进,从更深层次而言,是契约理论从注重形式正义至追求实质正义与自由价值的真正实现的过渡与完善。     

英美允诺禁反言原则的比较研究

允诺禁反言是英美法中特有的一项重要原则。要给允诺禁反言下定义并不容易，按照通常的定义，允诺禁反言是指“允诺人若有理由预见其允诺会引致受诺人或第三人作为或不作为，且其允诺引起了此种作为或不作为，为了公平的目的该允诺是可以强制执行的”。     

论“约因论”在英美法系的衰落

约因理论是英美契约法的独特内容,该理论的成熟形态是"交易约因论",即契约的成立以当事人之间的交换关系为基础,通常表现为受诺人的"法律受损"的"约因"就是交易的符号。"约因论"的衰落表现在多方面,既有"禁反言"等新的契约理论对它的挑战,也有成文法对约因要求适用范围的限制,而且,传统的约因法则在司法实践中也发生变革。"约因论"固有的形式主义、僵化性、技术性等弊病决定了其衰落的历史必然性,而"约因论"的衰落也标志着英美契约法从古典向现代的历史转型。     

英国1991年"威廉姆斯案"对约因理论的挑战

约因英美契约法的独特要素,约因法理的成熟形态--"交易约因论"是古典契约法的基石.1809年的Stilk v.Myrick案确立了重要的约因法则--受诺人对已存义务的履行不能作为新的允诺的约因,这实质上在很大程度上否认了契约变更的效力.英国1991年"威廉姆斯案"是英美契约法史上的经典案例,因为该案案情与Stilk案非常相似,可法官得出的判决结果却截然不同."威廉姆斯案"案判决改写了众多传统约因法则,动摇了约因理论的基础,而且,因为它与Stilk案判决的难以协调,还引发了"胁迫论"对"约因论"的挑战.     

诚信原则的具象化与禁反言规则的中国式建构

在《民事诉讼法》确立了诚信原则之后,普遍认为可以通过禁反言来具体适用诚信原则。禁反言是源于英美法的一项重要理论。它既是一种观念,也是具有若干表现形式的具体制度。虽然因制度环境不同,英美法的禁反言规则无法直接引入我国,但通过分析英关法上各类禁反言规则的构成要素,可以明确建构中国民事禁反言规则的基本路径,即根据诚信原则形成我国的禁反言观念,然后结合具体的民事诉讼制度,在禁反言观念下形成能满足司法实践需要的禁反言规则,从而在基本原则与具体制度之间显现出"诚信原则-禁反言观念-禁反言规则"这样一种关系。     

试论缔约过失责任与侵权责任的竞合－－评合同法第43条对商业秘密的保护

一、缔约过失责任:对合同法第43条的普遍理解 所谓缔约过失责任,按照其理论创始人--德国法学家耶林(Ihering)1861年在其主编的<耶林学说年报>第四卷上发表的<契约缔结之际的过失>一文的说法,是指当事人因自己过失致使契约不成立者,对信其契约为有效成立的相对人,应负担的基于此项信赖而产生的损害赔偿责任.1耶林的观点发表之后,很快在德国民法典中得到确认.2英美普通法上虽没有缔约过失的概念,但针对普通法上所遵循的合同原则之局限,在衡平法上创设了允诺禁反言的规则(PromissoryEstoppel Rule).美国学者Kessler和Fine认为,允诺禁反言法理发挥了与德国的缔约过失法理相同的功能.3可见,虽然说法不一,但两大法系都有关于合同前责任的规定.我国合同法关于缔约过失责任的规定主要借鉴了大陆法系国家的经验.     

缔约过失责任与允诺禁反言原则比较研究

缔约过失责任是大陆法系国家依据诚信原则 ,对于违反先契约义务的当事人所追究的民事责任 ;允诺禁反言原则是英美法系国家依诚信原则对无对价的允诺赋予法律约束力的一种制度。这两种制度各有特点 ,但均以诚信原则为基础 ,来保护当事人在缔约过程中的信赖利益 ,并分别在两大法系内发挥着平衡缔约当事人利益的功能。本文从比较法的角度出发 ,分析了这两种制度在产生渊源、理论基础、构成要件、适用范围等方面的异同     

允诺禁止反言原则在涉外合同中的适用

<正> 允诺禁止反言原则(promissory estoppel)源于“禁止反言”原则(the doctrine of equitable estoppel)。禁止反言原则是英美法中一项古老的原则,首先在合同领域展露锋芒,之后在保险法、公司法、合伙法和知识产权法等领域均得到广泛适用。在其发展过程中,禁止反言原则不断细化,现已形成允诺禁止反言、误述禁止反言(the doctrine of estoppel by representation)、财产所有人禁止反言(Propertary estoppel)和习惯禁止反言(Estoppel by convention)四种并列形式。允诺禁止反言原则最初以判例形式确立,此后在     

Bhartṛhari and Maṇḍana on Avidyā

The concept of avidyā is one of the central categories in the Advaita of Śaṇkara and Maṇḍana. Shifting the focus from māyā, interpreted either as illusion or as the divine power, this concept brings ignorance to the forefront in describing duality and bondage. Although all Advaitins accept avidyā as a category, its scope and nature is interpreted in multiple ways. Key elements in Maṇḍana’s philosophy include the plurality of avidyā, individual selves as its substrate and the Brahman as its field (viṣaya), and the distinction in avidyā between non-apprehension and misapprehension. A closer investigation shows that Maṇḍana is directly influenced by Bhartṛhari’s linguistic non-dualism in developing the concept of avidyā. This study also compares other key constituents such as vivartta and pariṇāma that are relevant to the analysis of avidyā. As the concept of counter-image (pratibimba) emerges as a distinct stream of Advaita subsequent to Maṇḍana, this study also compares the application of pratibimba in the writings of Bhartṛhari and Maṇḍana.     

Immigration,intermarriage and the changing face of Europe in the post war period

In this article we compare the propensity to intermarry of various migrant groups and their children who settled in Germany, France, England, Belgium and the Netherlands in the post-war period, using a wide range of available statistical data. We try to explain different intermarriage patterns within the framework of Alba and Nee's assimilation theory and pay special attention to the role of religion, colour and colonial background. We therefore compare colonial with non colonial migrants and within these categories between groups with ‘European’ (Christian) and non-European (Islam, Hinduism) religions. First of all, religion appears to be an important variable. Migrants whose faith has no tradition in Western Europe intermarry at a much lower rate than those whose religious backgrounds correspond with those that are common in the country of settlement. The rate of ethnic endogamous marriages in Western Europe are highest in Hindu and Muslim communities, often regardless if they came as guest workers or colonial migrants. Whereas differences in religion diminish the propensity to intermarry, colour or ‘racial’ differences on the other hand seem to be less important. This is largely explained by the pre-migration socialisation. Furthermore, the paper argues that the attention to institutions, as rightly advocated by Richard Alba and Victor Nee, needs a more refined and layered elaboration. Institutions, often as barriers to intermarriage, do not only emanate from the receiving society, but also—be it less formalized—within migrant communities. Especially religions and family systems, but also organized nationalist feelings, can have a profound influence on how migrants think about endogamy. Finally, strong pressures to assimilate, often through institutionalized forms of discrimination and stigmatization, not only produce isolation and frustrate assimilation (with resulting low intermarriage rates), but can also stimulate assimilation by 'passing' mechanisms. These factors, together with a more comparative perspective, are not completely ignored in the new assimilation theory, but—as this study of Western European intermarriage patterns stresses—deserve to be included more systematically in historical and social scientist analyses.     

Unraveling the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Kāvyaprakāśa</Emphasis>: Jayadeva Pīyūṣavarṣa’s idiosyncratic sequence of topics in the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candrāloka</Emphasis>

In his twelfth century alaṃkāraśāstra, the Candrāloka, Jayadeva Pīyūṣavarṣa reverses the sequence of topics found in Mammaṭa’s Kāvyapr-akāśa, an earlier and immensely popular work. With such a structural revisionism, Jayadeva asserts the autonomy of his own work and puts forth an ambitious critique of earlier approaches to literary analysis. Jayadeva investigates the technical and aesthetic components of poetry in the first part of the Candrāloka, prior to his formal semantic investigations in the latter half of the text, thus suggesting that aesthetic evaluations of poetry beneficially inform scientific investigations of language. Jayadeva’s organization of his chapters on the semantic operations, moreover, intimates that the study of suggestive and metaphoric functions of language clarifies our understanding of denotation, which is conventionally understood to be the primary and direct path of verbal designation.     

Illumination,Imagination, Creativity: Rājaśekhara,Kuntaka, and Jagannātha on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pratibhā</Emphasis>

Sanskrit poeticians make the visionary faculty of pratibhā a necessary part of the professional poet’s make-up. The term has a pre-history in Bhartṛhari’s linguistic metaphysics, where it is used to explain the unitary perception of meaning. This essay examines the relation between pratibhā and possible theories of the imagination, with a focus on three unusual theoreticians—Rājaśekhara, Kuntaka, and Jagannātha Paṇḍita. Rājaśekhara offers an analysis of pratibhā that is heavily interactive, requiring the discerning presence of the bhāvaka listener or critic; he also positions pratibhā in relation to Bildung (vyutpatti) and practice. For Kuntaka, pratibhā, never an ex nihilo creation by a poet, serves as the basis for the peculiar forms of intensified insight and experience that constitute poetry; these may also involve the creative scrambling and re-articulation of the object in terms of its systemic composition. At times, Kuntaka’s pratibhā comes close to a strong notion of imaginative process. But the full-fledged thematization of the imagination, and of pratibhā as its support and mechanism, is best seen in the seventeenth-century debates preserved for us by Jagannātha. A link is suggested between the discourse of poetic imagination in Jagannātha and similar themes that turn up in Indo-Persian poets such as Bedil.     

Preventing Homelessness for System‐Involved Youth

Too many youth and young adults find themselves on the streets, couch‐surfing with friends, in emergency shelters or worse, after exiting the child welfare and juvenile justice systems. In some circumstances, youth have had court hearings until their exit from the legal system, but those hearings have not focused on long‐range plans of youth and emergencies youth may encounter. In other circumstances, there has been little or no planning prior to discharge, especially for young people who leave the juvenile justice system. Courts can and should prevent, alleviate or end youth homelessness for youth who appear before them through strategies that are enumerated in the recently‐passed NCJFCJ resolution. This article expounds on three of these strategies – coordinating transition and re‐entry plans, insisting on effective legal representation of youth, and utilizing sound judicial leadership. It also describes the concurrent efforts of the Coalition for Juvenile Justice and the American Bar Association's Homeless Youth Legal Network to remove legal barriers and improve outcomes for youth and young adults experiencing homelessness.     

Best practices for structuring a family court parenting plan evaluation under the 2022 AFCC Guidelines

Evaluation appointment orders provide enforceable scaffolding for conduct of family court parenting plan evaluations, and use of the evaluator's reports, feedback, file, and testimony. Unlike a contract, a stipulated or adjudicated appointment order is directly enforceable by the family court. It unambiguously positions the evaluator as the family court's appointee – answerable directly to the court and, in some jurisdictions, protected by quasi-judicial immunity from damages claims. A well-crafted appointment order governs the roles and expectations of the court, the evaluator, the parties, the lawyers, and the collateral witnesses. An appointment order mandates the legal duties, rights, powers, and responsibilities of the professionals, the parties, and the collateral witnesses. At minimum, an appointment order articulates the legal basis for the appointment, the purpose and scope of the evaluation, compensation of evaluator, and the duty of the parties to participate in the process. A written evaluation protocol or procedures statement discloses in advance the methods of investigation and assessment that the evaluator intends to use. Together, the appointment order and written protocol help the evaluator, lawyers, parents, and judge manage the complexity of the evaluation process.     

The Supreme Array Scripture: A New Interpretation of the Title “Gaṇḍavyūha-sūtra”

This article argues for a new interpretation of the Sanskrit compound gaṇḍa-vyūha as it is used in the common title of the Mahāyāna text the Gaṇḍavyūha-Sūtra.The author begins by providing a brief history of the sūtra’s appellations in Chinese and Tibetan sources. Next, the meanings of gaṇḍa (the problematic member of the compound) are explored. The author proposes that contemporary scholars have overlooked a meaning of gaṇḍa occurring in some compounds, wherein gaṇḍa can mean simply “great,” “big” or “massive.” This general sense is particularly common in the compound gaṇda-śaila (a “massive rock” or “boulder”) and is found in such texts as the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, the Harivaṃśa and the Harṣacarita. Following the discussion of Gaṇḍa, the author examines the term vyūha (“array”) as it is used in the Gaṇḍavyūha-sūtra. The article concludes with the suggestion that a more appropriate translation of the Gaṇḍavyūha-sūtra would be “The Supreme array Scripture.”     

Evaluation of six presumptive tests for blood, their specificity, sensitivity, and effect on high molecular-weight DNA

Luminol, leuchomalachite green, phenolphthalein, Hemastix, Hemident, and Bluestar are all used as presumptive tests for blood. In this study, the tests were subjected to dilute blood (from 1:10,000 to 1:10,000,000), many common household substance, and chemicals. Samples were tested for DNA to determine whether the presumptive tests damaged or destroyed DNA. The DNA loci tested were D2S1338 and D19S433. Leuchomalachite green had a sensitivity of 1:10,000, while the remaining tests were able to detect blood to a dilution of 1:100,000. Substances tested include saliva, semen, potato, tomato, tomato sauce, tomato sauce with meat, red onion, red kidney bean, horseradish, 0.1 M ascorbic acid, 5% bleach, 10% cupric sulfate, 10% ferric sulfate, and 10% nickel chloride. Of all the substances tested, not one of the household items reacted with every test; however, the chemicals did. DNA was recovered and amplified from luminol, phenolphthalein, Hemastix, and Bluestar, but not from leuchomalachite green or Hemident.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Anyathākhyāti</Emphasis>: A Critique by Appaya Dīkṣita in the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Parimala</Emphasis>

In this paper, the problem of illusory perception, as approached by the Nyāya and Advaita Vedānta schools of philosophy, is discussed from the standpoint of the Parimala. This seminal work belonging to the Bhāmatī tradition of Advaita Vedānta was composed in the sixteenth century by the polymath Appaya Dīk?ita. In the context of discussing various theories of illusion, Dīk?ita dwells upon the Nyāya theory of anyathākhyāti, and its connection with jñānalak?a?apratyāsatti as a causal factor for perception, and closely examines if such an extraordinary (alaukika) perception is tenable to explain illusory perception. He then proceeds to point out the deficiencies of this model and thereby brings to the fore the anirvacanīyakhyāti of Advaitins as the only theory which stands scrutiny.     

Monks Who Have Sex: Pārājika Penance in Indian Buddhist Monasticisms

In the study of Buddhism it is commonly accepted that a monk or nun who commits a pārājika offence is permanently and irrevocably expelled from the Buddhist monastic order. This view is based primarily on readings of the Pāli Vinaya. With the exception of the Pāli Vinaya, however, all other extant Buddhist monastic law codes (Dharmaguptaka, Mahāsāṅghika, Mahīśāsaka, Sarvāstivāda and Mūlasarvāstivāda) contain detailed provisions for monks and nuns who commit pārājikas but nevertheless wish to remain within the saṅgha. These monastics are not expelled. Rather, they are granted a special status known as the śikṣādattaka. In this paper I explore the rules. concerning pārājika penance and the śikṣādattaka with specific regard to monastic celibacy. Given that five out of six extant law codes recognise this remarkable accommodation to the rule of celibacy, I argue that we must look to Vinayas other than the Pāli Vinaya if we are to arrive at a nuanced and representative view of Indian Buddhist monasticism.

Grant me chastity and continence, but not yet. Augustine of Hippo (354–430 C.E.)