Probation/Parole Officer Psychological Well-Being: the Impact of Supervising Persons with Mental Health Needs

Although supervising persons with mental illness can pose special challenges for community parole/probation officers (PPOs), few studies have investigated whether the number of supervisees on an officer’s caseload increases risk for poor mental health for PPOs and whether this link is due to emotional exhaustion. Using statewide survey data from 798 PPOs, we examine whether the number of supervisees on an officer’s caseload with mental health problems is associated with depressive symptoms reported the PPOs and whether this relationship is mediated by emotional exhaustion. In addition, we evaluate the potential mitigating role of both mental health services received by supervisees and officer training in mental health in the relationship between the number of supervisees on an officer’s caseload with mental health problems and emotional exhaustion experienced by PPOs. Findings reveal that PPOs with more supervisees on their caseload report significantly higher levels of depressive symptoms and that this relationship is completely explained away by emotional exhaustion. Neither mental health services received by supervisees nor officer training in mental health mitigated the link between the number of supervisees on an officer’s caseload with mental health problems and officer emotional exhaustion. This study underscores the importance of the psychological well-being of those on parole/probation for the emotional and mental health of the officers who supervise them.     

Crimes Against Caring: Exploring the Risk of Secondary Traumatic Stress,Burnout, and Compassion Satisfaction Among Child Exploitation Investigators

Secondary traumatic stress (STS) and burnout are debilitating occupational hazards that inhibit helping professional’s overall well-being. Much of the extant scholarship on this topic has focused on mental health and child welfare workers and not law enforcement officials who investigate Internet child exploitation. This study used data from 433 Internet Crimes Against Children (ICAC) Task Force personnel to explore the impact of individual and work-related factors associated with the risk of STS, burnout, and compassion satisfaction. Findings indicated that nearly one in four ICAC personnel exhibited low compassion satisfaction and high levels of STS and burnout. Individual-level protective factors for increasing compassion satisfaction and mitigating symptoms of STS and burnout included having a strong social support system outside of work and the frequent use of positive coping mechanisms. Work-related risk factors such as frequent indirect exposure to disturbing materials, low organizational support, and frequently feeling overwhelmed at work were all associated with higher STS and burnout and lower levels of compassion satisfaction. Policy implications and future avenues of research are discussed.     

Role Conflict in Community Corrections

A study was conducted to determine whether prior research had accurately conceptualised community correctional officers' experience of role conflict on the basis of officers' role preferences. It was hypothesised that officers who were welfare workers or punitive officers would experience inter-role conflict while those who attempted to combine the welfare and punitive roles (protective agents) would experience intra-role conflict and role ambiguity. Furthermore, an exploration of how inter-role conflict, intra-role conflict, role ambiguity, and officers' role preferences were related to occupational burnout was conducted. It was found in this study that officers' preferences for the role of welfare worker, protective agent, or punitive officer were not related to the level of inter-role conflict, intra-role conflict, or role ambiguity experienced by officers. Officers' role preferences were not related to burnout. Inter-role conflict and intra-role conflict were associated with emotional exhaustion. These findings call into question the whole tradition in the community corrections literature of inferring role conflict from officers' role preferences and necessitate that the whole issue of whether officers experience role conflict be revisited by employing direct measures of role conflict.     

Exploring burnout in batterer intervention programs

This study used the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) to explore burnout in a sample of 115 batterer intervention program (BIP) workers (56% female, 44% male) from four midwestern states. The purpose of this study was to explore the role that demographic variables, job-setting variables, supervisor support, and personality characteristics played in predicting burnout for BIP workers. Significant associations emerged for all aspects of burnout. Job-setting variables and personality characteristics were predictive of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, whereas job-setting variables were predictive of personal accomplishment. The findings suggest that job and person variables are important factors to consider for burnout prevention and coping strategies for BIP workers. In addition, the results show that compared to MBI subscale norms for mental health workers, BIP workers fell in the moderate range for emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, but in the high range for personal accomplishment.     

Are Shelter Workers Burned Out?: An Examination of Stress,Social Support,and Coping

Job stress, perceived social support, coping self-efficacy, and coping strategies were studied as predictors of emotional exhaustion and reduced personal accomplishment among a sample of 123 female shelter workers. Overall, these workers did not meet the collective criteria for burnout as defined by Maslach and Jackson (1986) and perceived social support and coping strategies did not account for unique variance in the prediction of emotional exhaustion and reduced personal accomplishment. Rather, high levels of time pressure and low levels of self-efficacy for being productive at work were identified as predictors of emotional exhaustion. Personal accomplishment was predicted by time pressure and robust levels of self-efficacy for dealing with stressors at work. An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 109th annual convention of the American Psychological Association. This paper is based on the Masters thesis of Lisa M. Baker and the undergraduate honors thesis of Nazish Salahuddin, both completed under the direction of Karen M. O’Brien. Gratitude is extended to Christel Nichols and to the crisis workers who participated in this study.     

Hanging on Too Long: The Relationship between Different Forms of Organizational Commitment and Emotional Burnout among Correctional Staff

This study examined the relationship of organizational commitment with job burnout in the correctional institution setting. Participants were 272 corrections employees at a maximum security state prison housing approximately 1000 male felony offenders. Participants completed survey instruments measuring the emotional exhaustion dimension of burnout and three primary forms of organizational commitment (affective, moral, and continuance). Results support the study’s predictions of a negative relationship between burnout and affective commitment, and a positive relationship between burnout and continuance commitment. No significant relationship was found between moral commitment and emotional burnout. While no personal variables were related to burnout, the three forms of organizational commitment accounted for 22% of the burnout variance.     

Work-related well-being in the South African Police Service

The objective of this study was to assess whether background variables, job stress, and personality traits could predict the work-related well-being (burnout and work engagement) of police members. A cross-sectional survey design was used. Stratified random samples (N = 1,794) were taken of police members of eight provinces in South Africa. The Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey, Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, Police Stress Inventory, and Personality Characteristics Inventory were administered. The results showed that age, gender, and race explained a small percentage of the variance in exhaustion, cynicism, and vigor/dedication. Stress because of job demands and a lack of resources predicted exhaustion and cynicism. Emotional stability and conscientiousness inversely predicted exhaustion and cynicism, while emotional stability, conscientiousness, and extraversion predicted vigor and dedication. Stress because of job demands predicted only a small percentage of the variance in vigor and dedication.     

Stress,coping, and psychological well‐being among forensic health care professionals

Purpose. Although forensic services are often regarded as highly stressful environments, there has been a surprising lack of research into the phenomena of occupational stress among forensic health care professionals (FHCP) in the United Kingdom. This study investigated stress, coping, and psychological well‐being among FHCP employed within inpatient settings. Methods. One hundred and thirty‐five FHCP were recruited from four Medium Secure Units in the United Kingdom. A postal research pack was used to collect background information and measures of psychological well‐being, burnout, occupational stress, work satisfaction, and coping. Results. The study found that a substantial proportion of FHCP experienced elevated levels of occupational stress and psychological distress, while moderate levels of burnout were demonstrated in terms of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment. The findings confirmed that FHCP utilized a range of problem‐focused (e.g., positive), emotion‐focused (e.g., religious, negative, and supported), and palliative coping strategies (e.g., excessive smoking and drinking). Conclusions. The results appeared to support the commonly held assertion that forensic services are an inherently stressful and dangerous working environment, which can cause FHCP to experience marked levels of psychological distress, burnout, and occupational stress.     

Prison staff and work stress: The role of organizational and emotional influences

Previous research has well established the influence of demographics and work environment variables on the experience of job stress for correctional officers. However, the literature examining this phenomenon for other correctional staff is just beginning to emerge. Scant attention has also been previously devoted to the potential role of emotional issues, such as emotional dissonance, work environment variables of perceived organizational fairness, and feedback regarding job performance. The present research adds to this emerging literature through use of survey data from a sample of correctional staff employed in two prisons in Kentucky. Bivariate and multivariate analyses reveal that influences on perceived work stress are primarily organizational issues, including role conflict, emotional dissonance, and task control. Contrary to popular belief, the percent of one’s work time spent in contact with inmates reduces the experience of work stress.     

EMOTIONAL DISTRESS IN CHILDREN OF HIGH-CONFLICT DIVORCE

This study examines factors that contribute to the emotional distress of children whose parents experience an acrimonious divorce with conflict over custody and visitation issues. Information was gathered systematically from guardian ad litem reports on 105 children in order to explore the child's emotional distress in response to individual-, parental-, marital-, and custody–related factors. Findings emphasize the impact of the level of marital conflict in predicting increases in the child's emotional distress. The child who witnesses domestic violence and experiences child malmatment suffers a powerful cumulative impact from these factors. which results in a steep increase in emotional distress symptoms. A cluster of relevantfactors taken jointly, including the level of marital conflict, violence against a partner or against the child, the parent's mental health, the child's medical condition, and the nature of visitation changes, all contribute signifcantly to the child's emotional distress.     

Burnout,Coping, Stress of Conscience and Psychosocial Work Environment among Patrolling Police Officers

Police personnel work under different circumstances in various environments involving stressful situations which can increase the risk of burnout. Aim of this study was to investigate the association between burnout (emotional exhaustion, EE vs. depersonalization, DP) and psychosocial work environment, stress of conscience as well as coping strategies among patrolling police officers in Sweden. Most of the independent variables; psychological demand, decision latitude, social support, and coping scales were correlated with EE and DP. A hierarchical multiple regression was performed to investigate the predictive impact of; psychological demand, decision latitude, social support, coping strategies and stress of conscience. Findings revealed that risk of EE increased with a troubled conscience for both women and men when coping strategies were added to the model. For men risk of DP increased with troubled conscience. Only low decision latitude was associated with risk of DP for women when coping strategies were added to the model. Results from this study indicate that stress of conscience has to be taken into consideration and also levels of social support and decision latitude when studying the influence of the psychosocial work environment on burnout.     

Darfur refugees in Cairo: mental health and interpersonal conflict in the aftermath of genocide

Hundreds of thousands of Darfur people affected by the Sudanese genocide have fled to Cairo, Egypt, in search of assistance. Collaborating with Africa and Middle East Refugee Assistance (AMERA), the authors conducted a mental health care needs assessment among Darfur refugees in Cairo. Information was collected using individual and focus group interviews to identify gaps in mental health care and develop understandings of emotional and relationship problems. The refugee mental health care system has a piecemeal structure with gaps in outpatient services. There is moderate to severe emotional distress among many Darfur refugees, including symptoms of depression and trauma, and interpersonal conflict, both domestic violence and broader community conflict, elevated relative to pregenocide levels. Given the established relationships between symptoms of depression/traumatic stress and interpersonal violence, improving mental health is important for both preventing mental health decompensation and stemming future cycles of intra- and intergroup conflict.     

A research note on the association between work–family conflict and job stress among Chinese prison staff

Job stress, which has been found to have numerous negative effects on U.S. correctional staff, occurs as a result of stressors in the work environment. Recent research in the U.S. suggests that work–family conflict (e.g. time-based conflict, strain-based conflict, behavior-based conflict, and family-based conflict) may contribute to job stress for correctional staff. This exploratory study examined how different dimensions of work–family conflict were associated with job stress by surveying 322 staff at 2 Chinese prisons, 1 for male inmates and 1 for female inmates, in Guangzhou. An Ordinary Least Squares regression equation was computed with the job stress index as the dependent variable, and the personal characteristics (i.e. age, tenure, gender, educational level, and marital status) and the four work–family conflict variables as the independent variables. The independent variables explained about 49% of the observed variance in the job stress variable. The personal characteristics, time-based conflict, and family-on-work conflict did not have a statistically significant association with job stress in the multivariate analysis, but both strain-based conflict and behavior-based conflict had negative associations.     

Depressive Symptomatology and Program Efficacy: Examining a Program to Improve Communication in Community Families

Destructive conflict is linked with adjustment problems over time, putting families at risk even when conflict behaviors have not reached levels of clinical concern. The Family Communication Project (FCP) is a psychoeducational program designed to improve communication in families with adolescent children. The present study examines the role of depression in program efficacy over time. Data were collected across four time points, assessing aspects of marital and family conflict, adolescent emotional security, and depressive symptoms in mothers, fathers, and adolescents. Results indicated improvements in conflict strategies for families who received the psychoeducational program (relative to controls), and point to a role of depressive symptomatology in adolescents in relation to treatment outcomes.     

Secondary Traumatic Stress and Burnout among Law Enforcement Investigators Exposed to Disturbing Media Images

This study examines the psychological impact of viewing disturbing media on investigators engaged in computer forensics work. Twenty-eight federal law enforcement personnel who investigate Internet child pornography cases completed measures of secondary traumatic stress disorder (STSD) and burnout. Substantial percentages of investigators reported poor psychological well-being. Greater exposure to disturbing media was related to higher levels of STSD and cynicism. STSD and burnout scores were related to increased protectiveness of family, reliance on co-workers, general distrust, and turnover intentions. On a positive note, investigators scored high in professional efficacy, indicating they feel their work makes a difference. Furthermore, personnel with supportive relationships scored lower on both STSD and burnout.     

Occupational stress,supervisor support,job satisfaction,and work-related burnout: perceptions of Turkish National Police (TNP) members

The present study examines whether, and to what degree, occupational stress in law enforcement is associated with job satisfaction, work-related burnout, and supervisor support. A total of 538 Turkish National Police (TNP) members form seven cities in Turkey completed the study survey. The results of the study indicate that the more TNP members experience their organization as stress inducing, the lower their job satisfaction levels, and the higher their burnout levels. Perceived operational stress was found to be significantly associated with their work-related burnout, but not with their job satisfaction. This study also suggests that there is an indirect causal effect of both organizational and operational stress on job satisfaction via supervisor support as mediator. Overall, the findings of this study illustrate a need for internal policy reform and managerial change in how the executives of TNP organize their agency and policies since organizational stressors are the most prevalent factors determining the work-related wellbeing of TNP members.     

The social,relational and mental health characteristics of justice-involved men in the south-west England

The aim of this article is to describe the social, relational and mental health characteristics of a sample of offenders serving prison or community sentences in the south-west England. About 100 adult male offenders were screened for anxiety and depressive disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), drug and alcohol dependence, and likely personality disorder using validated instruments. Fifty-eight per cent of the sample reported at least one common mental health problem, of these only 26% reported receiving treatment. Participants exposed to traumatic events and/or participants with past mental health problems were more likely to score positive for current common mental health problems. Our study identified factors that may increase the risk of a first episode or recurrent anxiety and/or depression for offenders. Health and criminal justice services should create partnerships and develop interventions that address the risk factors which lead and/or contribute to offenders' mental health difficulties.     

A FOCUS ON EMOTION IN MEDIATION TRAINING

Trainee mediators must learn to understand their own emotions and the emotional reactions of mediation participants to intervene effectively in conflict. Training techniques developed for family and divorce mediation may also apply to training for other types of conflict. Visualization and observation exercises developed a "meta-perspective" on the dynamics of conflict, which can help traines manage their own emotional reactions and think strategically at the same time. Responding to videotaped or role-played emotional reactions from participants can desensitize trainees to conflict. Directing trainees toward information available on the process of divorce or other prolonged conflict can help them respond with more empathy to participants. Attention paid to these emotional issues in mediation training may prevent mediator stress and burnout.     

Family Psychopathology and Perceived Stress of Both Domestic Violence and Negative Life Events as Predictors of Women’s Mental Health Symptoms

Using a diathesis–stress model, this study examined the development of depressive and anxiety symptoms in women who experience stressors of domestic violence (DV) and/or negative life events (NLEs) over the course of three years. Family history of affective mental health problems represented the diathesis. Using a person-oriented approach, 182 women were grouped into 6 risk profiles based on varying levels of DV and NLEs. Results showed that family history of psychopathology increased vulnerability to mental health disorders; however, the best predictor of symptoms was the presence of either stressor at any time. A quadratic relationship between the risk pattern and mental health symptoms indicated that fluctuations in depression were related to the pattern of stress experienced. Results support the diathesis–stress model for occurrence of depressive but not anxiety symptoms in women with DV and/or NLEs.     

Job demands, job resources, and burnout among police officers

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between job demands, job resources, and burnout, and to examine if burnout could predict both work and health-related outcomes among police officers. The participants were 223 Norwegian police officers, and data were collected using a questionnaire. The study was part of a national survey of both health care and non-health care professions. The overall level of burnout was low among police officers compared to other occupational groups tested in Norway. Both job demands and job resources were related to burnout, especially work-family pressure was an important predictor for all of the three burnout dimensions. Burnout predicted individual outcomes, such as psychosomatic complaints and satisfaction with life, as well as work outcomes, such as job satisfaction, intention to quit, and organizational commitment. Suggestions for potential interventions to reduce burnout and negative individual and organizational consequences are presented.