The future of forensic and crime scene science. Part II. A UK perspective on forensic science education

This paper builds on the views presented by the author at 'The Future of Forensic and Crime Scene Science Conference'. Forensic science has become an increasingly prominent area of science within the last 10 years. This increasing prominence together with popularity in the subject has seen the number of undergraduate students studying forensic science related courses at UK Universities increase rapidly in just 5 years and there are no short term signs of this trend reducing. In 2005, there were 450 courses with forensic in the title offered by higher education institutes. Although the forensic community has expressed its concern that job prospects for these students wishing to pursue careers as forensic scientists will be limited numbers of students undertaking science courses have still increased. The increase in students studying forensic science comes in an era of decreasing science numbers in higher education with the potential to produce high calibre science graduates with sought after skills in critical thinking, analysis, interpretation and communication. Technology has continued to advance at a similar pace providing those responsible for managing crime with a need and opportunity to identify and predict new and future applications of science and technology; not just in reducing and detecting crime but also in predicting how technology will be used by criminals in the future. There is therefore a need for forensic science users, providers and educators to identify the knowledge and skills required by forensic scientists and crime investigators of the future to ensure that technology continues to be used and applied to its full advantage. This provides universities an opportunity to contribute to the development of both the practice and practitioners of forensic science. This paper outlines the current issues facing universities in relation to forensic science and identifies their future role in providing high quality relevant courses for future forensic practitioners; developing current forensic practitioners through their participation in applied research, short courses, conferences and qualifications linked to professional practice; and supporting and developing the practice of forensic and crime scene science, through the identification, engagement and dissemination of pure and applied research.     

Measuring the impact of forensic science in detecting burglary and autocrime offences

As UK investment in forensic science has increased, the government has taken a fresh interest in how far this has led to dividends in terms of the detection of crime and its reduction. The Home Office funded 'Pathfinder Project' sought to monitor and document the complex relationships between the collection and use of forensic material (looking at a range of forensic science techniques) and its impact on crime detection. The project specifically targeted the 'volume' crimes of burglary and vehicle crime. Detailed data was gathered on all stages of the process between the collection and use of forensic material and crime detection. The model falls into two conceptual phases--scene attendance to suspect identification and identification to detection. From the analysis it was found that approximately one third of burglary and autocrime scenes are visited by SOCOs. While scientific identifications are only made in a minority of burglary and autocrime offences overall, it belies their importance. About one in ten of burglary and autocrime cases are cleared up by the police and it is estimated that fingerprints and SGMPlus were a contributory factor in achieving one third of these clear ups.     

On the added value of forensic science and grand innovation challenges for the forensic community

In this paper the insights and results are presented of a long term and ongoing improvement effort within the Netherlands Forensic Institute (NFI) to establish a valuable innovation programme. From the overall perspective of the role and use of forensic science in the criminal justice system, the concepts of Forensic Information Value Added (FIVA) and Forensic Information Value Efficiency (FIVE) are introduced. From these concepts the key factors determining the added value of forensic investigations are discussed; Evidential Value, Relevance, Quality, Speed and Cost. By unravelling the added value of forensic science and combining this with the future needs and scientific and technological developments, six forensic grand challenges are introduced: i) Molecular Photo-fitting; ii) chemical imaging, profiling and age estimation of finger marks; iii) Advancing Forensic Medicine; iv) Objective Forensic Evaluation; v) the Digital Forensic Service Centre and vi) Real time In-Situ Chemical Identification. Finally, models for forensic innovation are presented that could lead to major international breakthroughs on all these six themes within a five year time span. This could cause a step change in the added value of forensic science and would make forensic investigative methods even more valuable than they already are today.     

The current status of forensic science laboratory accreditation in Europe

Forensic science is gaining some solid ground in the area of effective crime prevention, especially in the areas where more sophisticated use of available technology is prevalent. All it takes is high-level cooperation among nations that can help them deal with criminality that adopts a cross-border nature more and more. It is apparent that cooperation will not be enough on its own and this development will require a network of qualified forensic laboratories spread over Europe. It is argued in this paper that forensic science laboratories play an important role in the fight against crime. Another, complimentary argument is that forensic science laboratories need to be better involved in the fight against crime. For this to be achieved, a good level of cooperation should be established and maintained. It is also noted that harmonization is required for such cooperation and seeking accreditation according to an internationally acceptable standard, such as ISO/IEC 17025, will eventually bring harmonization as an end result. Because, ISO/IEC 17025 as an international standard, has been a tool that helps forensic science laboratories in the current trend towards accreditation that can be observed not only in Europe, but also in the rest of the world of forensic science. In the introduction part, ISO/IEC 17025 states that "the acceptance of testing and calibration results between countries should be facilitated if laboratories comply with this international standard and if they obtain accreditation from bodies which have entered into mutual recognition agreements with equivalent bodies in other countries using this international standard." Furthermore, it is emphasized that the use of this international standard will assist in the harmonization of standards and procedures. The background of forensic science cooperation in Europe will be explained by using an existing European forensic science network, i.e. ENFSI, in order to understand the current status of forensic science in Europe better. The Council of Europe and the European Union approaches to forensic science will also be discussed by looking at the legal instruments and documents published by these two European organizations. Data collected from 52 European forensic science laboratories will be examined and findings will be evaluated from a quality assurance and accreditation point of view. The need for harmonization and accreditation in forensic science will be emphasized. The steps that should be taken at the European level for increasing and strengthening the role of European forensic science laboratories in the fight against crime will be given as recommendations in the conclusion.     

The relationship between the detection of acquisitive crime by forensic science and drug-dependent offenders

Drug- and nondrug-related acquisitive crime offences such as burglary, theft, and motor vehicle theft, were compared to assess whether drug abusers were more likely to be apprehended via forensic science techniques. Data were all acquisitive offences committed over a 6-year period within a police force area in England. Drug-dependent offenders committed a wider range of offence types than nondependent offenders, and they were significantly more likely to be detected via their DNA or fingerprints (p < 0.01). A logistic regression (n > 14,000) revealed a number of predictors that influence the detection of the crime by forensic techniques. The results indicate that a number of these predictors are of statistical significance; the most significant of these being drug use by the offender with sex, ethnicity, and employment status also being relevant. Age of the offender and number of offences committed were found not to be significant. Of the four hypotheses considered to explain this, the most likely was thought to be the physical and mental impact of drug use on crime scene behavior. Consideration is given to the disciplines of forensic science and forensic psychology working closely together to distinguish factors that influence crime scene behavior.     

Effective use of forensic science in volume crime investigations: Identifying recurring themes in the literature

New scientific, technological and legal developments, particularly the introduction of national databases for DNA and fingerprints, have led to increased use of forensic science in the investigation of crime. There is an assumption, and in some instances specific assertions, that such developments bring improvements either in broad criminal justice terms or more narrowly in terms of economic or practical efficiencies. The underlying presumption is that the new technological opportunities will be understood and effectively implemented. This research investigates whether such increases in activity have also been accompanied by improvements in the effective use of forensic science. A systematic review of thirty-six reports published (predominantly in England and Wales) since the 1980s, which have considered the use of forensic science in the investigation of volume crimes, was carried out. These reports have identified a number of recurrent themes that influenced how effectively forensic science was used in investigations. The themes identified included forensic knowledge and training of investigators, communication and information exchange between specialists and investigators, timeliness of forensic results, interagency relationships and deployment of crime scene examiner resources. The research findings suggest that these factors continue to hinder the effective use of forensic science despite technological advances and this paper considers their potential causes.     

The contribution of forensic science to crime analysis and investigation: forensic intelligence

The debate in forensic science concentrates on issues such as standardisation, accreditation and de-contextualisation, in a legal and economical context, in order to ensure the scientific objectivity and efficiency that must guide the process of collecting, analysing, interpreting and reporting forensic evidence. At the same time, it is recognised that forensic case data is still poorly integrated into the investigation and the crime analysis process, despite evidence of its great potential in various situations and studies. A change of attitude is needed in order to accept an extended role for forensic science that goes beyond the production of evidence for the court. To stimulate and guide this development, a long-term intensive modelling activity of the investigative and crime analysis process that crosses the boundaries of different disciplines has been initiated. A framework that fully integrates forensic case data shows through examples the capital accumulated that may be put to use systematically.     

A brief history of the formation of DNA databases in forensic science within Europe

The introduction of DNA analysis to forensic science brought with it a number of choices for analysis, not all of which were compatible. As laboratories throughout Europe were eager to use the new technology different systems became routine in different laboratories and consequently, there was no basis for the exchange of results. A period of co-operation then started in which a nucleus of forensic scientists agreed on an uniform system. This collaboration spread to incorporate most of the established forensic science laboratories in Europe and continued through two major changes in the technology. At each step agreement was reached on which systems to use. From the beginning it was realised that DNA databases would provide the criminal justice systems with an efficient way of crime solving and consequently some local databases were created. It was not until the introduction of the amplification technology linked to the analysis of short tandem repeats that a sufficiently sensitive and robust system was available for the formation of efficient and effective DNA databases. Comprehensive legislation enacted in the UK in 1995 enabled forensic scientists to set up the first national DNA database which would hold both personal DNA profiles together with results obtained from crime scenes. Other countries quickly followed but in some the legislation has severely restricted the amount and type of data which can be retained and, therefore, effectiveness of the databases is limited. The widespread use of commercially produced multiplex kits has produced a situation in which nearly all European laboratories are using compatible systems and there is, therefore, the potential for the introduction of a pan-European DNA database. However, the exchange of results between countries is hampered by the various legislations which currently exist.     

Scientific standards for studies in forensic genetics

Forensic molecular genetics has evolved from a rapidly developing field with changing technologies into a highly recognized and generally accepted forensic science, leading to the establishment of national DNA databases with DNA profiles from suspects and convicted offenders. DNA evidence has taken a central role by carrying a significant weight for convictions, as well as by excluding innocent suspects early on in a criminal investigation. Due to this impact on the criminal justice system, guidelines for research in forensic genetics have been introduced already since many years. The most important issues regarding the selection and definition of typing systems both for paternity testing and for forensic identification, the criteria for technical and biostatistical validation, as well as the use of mitochondrial DNA analysis are summarized and discussed.     

Hyperspectral imaging in forensic science: An overview of major application areas

Analysis of evidence is a challenge. Crime scene materials are complex, diverse, sometimes of an unknown nature. Forensic science provides the most critical applications for their examination. Chemical tests, analytical methods, and techniques to process the evidence must be carefully selected by the forensic scientist. Ideally, it may be interpreted, analyzed, and judged in the original context of the crime scene. In this sense, hyperspectral imaging (HSI) has been employed as an analytical tool that maintains the integrity of the samples/objects for multiple and sequential analysis and for counter-proof exams. This paper is an overview of forensic science trends for the application of HSI techniques in the last ten years (2011–2021). The examination of documents was the main area of exploration, followed by bloodstain analysis aging process; trace analysis of explosives and gunshot residue. Chemometric tools were also addressed since they are crucial to obtain the most important information from the samples. There are great challenges in applying HSI in forensic science, but there have been clear technological and scientific advances, and a solid foundation has been built for the use of HSI in real-life cases.     

The distinction between discriminability and reliability in forensic science

Forensic science plays an increasingly important role in the criminal justice system; yet, many forensic procedures have not been subject to the empirical scrutiny that is expected in other scientific disciplines. Over the past two decades, the scientific community has done well to bridge the gap, but have likely only scratched the tip of the iceberg. We offer the discriminability-reliability distinction as a critical framework to guide future research on diagnostic-testing procedures in the forensic science domain. We argue that the primary concern of the scientist ought to be maximizing discriminability and that the primary concern of the criminal justice system ought to be assessing the reliability of evidence. We argue that Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis is uniquely equipped for determining which of two procedures or conditions has better discriminability and we also demonstrate how estimates of reliability can be extracted from this Signal Detection framework.     

Expanding forensic science through forensic intelligence

Research and Development (‘R&D’) in forensic science currently focuses on innovative technologies improving the efficiency of existing forensic processes, from the detection of marks and traces at the scene, to their presentation in Court. R&D approached from this perspective provides no response to doubts raised by recent criminological studies, which question the effective contribution of forensic science to crime reduction, and to policing in general.Traces (i.e. forensic case data), as remnants of criminal activity are collected and used in various forms of crime monitoring and investigation. The aforementioned doubts therefore need to be addressed by expressing how information is conveyed by traces in these processes. Modelling from this standpoint expands the scope of forensic science and provides new R&D opportunities. Twelve propositions for R&D are stated in order to pave the way.     

Palynology: its position in the field of forensic science

Here we examine the current state of palynology in the field of forensic science. Forensic palynology is discussed with reference to other forensic disciplines to help understand what is required for its progress. Emerging developments are also discussed. Palynomorphs potentially deliver excellent trace evidence, fulfilling the requirements relating to the transfer, persistence, and detection of such evidence. Palynological evidence can provide very powerful investigative and associative evidence. Despite this, the application of palynology to forensic science has had mixed success. There are many anecdotal stories where pollen evidence has had spectacular successes. But it is extremely underutilized in most countries because it is labor-intensive and requires considerable expertise and experience, there is a lack of control over sample collection and inadequate resourcing and funding, and its crime-solving power is not well known. Palynology has been applied to forensic problems in an unstructured way, resulting in a lack of formalized discussion of the underlying principles. As there is renewed questioning of the acceptability of most evidence types in the current legal environment, there is a need for the establishment of palynological evidence through validation-type studies and experimentation, and the implementation of independent proficiency testing.     

A call for mtDNA data quality control in forensic science

There is increasing evidence that many of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) databases published in the fields of forensic science and molecular anthropology are flawed. An a posteriori phylogenetic analysis of the sequences could help to eliminate most of the errors and thus greatly improve data quality. However, previously published caveats and recommendations along these lines were not yet picked up by all researchers. Here we call for stringent quality control of mtDNA data by haplogroup-directed database comparisons. We take some problematic databases of East Asian mtDNAs, published in the Journal of Forensic Sciences and Forensic Science International, as examples to demonstrate the process of pinpointing obvious errors. Our results show that data sets are not only notoriously plagued by base shifts and artificial recombination but also by lab-specific phantom mutations, especially in the second hypervariable region (HVR-II).     

Science serving justice: opportunities for enhancing integrity in forensic science in Africa

Forensic science is a unique discipline of applied science. At its core it is a science, yet finds its use in the application to cases that often go to a court of law. Practicing at the intersection of science and law poses distinct challenges, but also holds incredible potential in its ability to serve as a vehicle for integrity. The practice of forensic science in Africa is at a tipping point. Unchartered waters lie ahead for the continent and its forensic scientists. Often working in inadequately resourced environments, obstacles may seem insurmountable. As African forensic scientists, we can overcome these obstacles as we accept that we are connected and united in our goal to allow science to serve justice.     

移植时间和检测方法与allo-HSCT受者的DNA嵌合率及法医学意义

影响allo-HSCT受者DNA嵌合率的因素有很多:如受者的疾病类型、移植前预处理方案、移植时病情的严重程度、造血干细胞来源、局部的GVHD、HLA是否相合等。本文主要讨论与法医学关系最为密切的2个影响因素,即移植后时间和检测方法的灵敏度。法医物证学工作者在检案实践中,对allo-HSCT受者进行亲权鉴定或个体识别时,需注意移植后时间和检测方法的灵敏度对嵌合率的影响。女性受者接受男性供者HSCT的情况下,受者毛囊中可以检出供者Y染色体DNA,检案实践中来源于犯罪现场的生物检材不能仅仅检测Y染色体特异遗传标记,以免导致错误判断。     

Decision analysis in forensic science

Forensic scientists are routinely faced with the problems of making decisions under circumstances of uncertainty (i.e., to perform or not perform a test). A decision making model in forensic science is proposed, illustrated with an example from the field of forensic genetics. The approach incorporates available evidence and associated uncertainties with the assessment of utilities (or desirability of the consequences). The paper examines a general example for which identification will be made of the decision maker, the possible actions, the uncertain states of nature, the possible source of evidence and the kind of utility assessments required. It is argued that a formal approach can help to clarify the decision process and give a coherent means of combining elements to reach a decision.     

How to regulate forensic familial DNA searching in Hungary?

Forensic DNA analysis has the potential to provide useful information for criminal justice even in cases where there is no match, neither between the DNA profile generated from the crime scene and the existing DNA profiles in criminal databases, nor between the DNA collected at a crime scene and potential suspects. In contrast to traditional forensic genetic testing, forensic familial DNA searching does not provide evidence, but helps to generate investigative leads and narrow down the range of potential offenders. The aim of this study is to examine, whether there is a need for special regulation of this topic in Hungary.     

Geomatic techniques in forensic science: A review

The purpose of this review paper is to highlight various geomatic techniques that crime scene reconstructionists or forensic practitioners can use to document different kinds of scenes, highlighting the advantages, disadvantages, and when best to use each technology. This paper explores geomatic techniques such as a total station, photogrammetry, laser scanners and structured light scanners and how they can be used to reconstruct crime scenes. The goal of this paper is not to discredit manual methods, as they are long standing and reliable, but instead to shed light on alternative methods that may produce equally or more accurate results with a more visually appealing final product. It is important for law enforcement and forensic professionals to understand the advantages and disadvantages of each technique, knowing when certain techniques should be used (and when they should not), and being able to revert to traditional methods if required.