Further data on interrogative suggestibility and compliance scores following instructed malingering

Purpose. This study examined whether people can successfully feign high levels of interrogative suggestibility and compliance as measured by the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales (GSS) and the Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (GCS) when given instructions to malinger. Methods. Participants (N = 90) were randomly allocated to one of three groups that received: (1) instructions to give into leading questions in order to look vulnerable to suggestions, (2) instructions to be compliant with the examiner, or (3) the standard GSS/GCS instructions. Results. One of the two malingering instructions led to modestly elevated scores of total suggestibility, while subscales remained unaffected. In contrast, both malingering groups obtained highly elevated compliance scores. Conclusions. These findings suggest that heightened suggestibility is rather difficult to malinger, thereby confirming the reliability of the GSS. On the other hand, it might be easier to malingering compliance as measured with the self‐report GCS.     

The relationship between intelligence,memory and interrogative suggestibility in young offenders

Abstract

The study investigated the relationship between interrogative suggestibility and relevant cognitive factors as proposed by Gudjonsson and Clark (1986). The subjects were fifty-eight adolescent young offenders resident in a national children's centre with secure facilities. All were administered the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. Interrogative suggestibility correlated negatively with intelligence and recall memory. Limited evidence of range effects was found for the relationship between intelligence and suggestibility, but not for the relationship between recall memory and suggestibility.     

Child and adult witnesses with intellectual disability: The importance of suggestibility

Purpose. The main aim of the study was to examine the relationship between learning (intellectual) disability and interrogative suggestibility among children (11‐12 years old) and adults. Method. The Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS 2) was administered to 110 children and 221 adults who were categorized into three groups according to fullscale IQ scores: (1) normal IQ (>75); (2) mild impairment (IQ score 55‐75); and (3) moderate impairment (IQ score <55). Results. Highly significant differences in memory and suggestibility emerged in both the child and adult samples across groups. Using memory as a covariate in the analysis eliminated the significant group differences for ‘yield 1’ among the children, but not for adults. There was no significant influence of memory on ‘shift’ in either group. Whereas ‘shift’ was significantly influenced by intellectual disability in children, no significant difference emerged across groups among adults. Conclusions. Children and adults with learning disability have much poorer memory and higher suggestibility scores than their contemporariesof normal intelligence. Differences in suggestibility are only partly explained by poorer memory scores. The findings reveal important differences between children and adults with intellectual disabilities. Children with learning disabilities are more susceptible to altering their answers under pressure than are adults with learning disabilities.     

Individual differences in interrogative suggestibility: life adversity and field dependence

Since the turn of the century much research has explored the concept of interrogative suggestibility, with recent research highlighting a sizeable link between the reported experience of negative life events (NLEs) and performance on the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale 1 (GSS1). The present study sought to reinvestigate the previously found novel relationship, as well as explore the role of field dependence as a possible coping mechanism implemented during interview by such vulnerable interviewees. As expected, highly significant correlations between NLEs and the suggestibility components of the GSS emerged. Field dependence, however, failed to correlate significantly with either NLE or GSS scores. Nonetheless, some additional findings relating to age, NLEs, and shift scores on the GSS were noted, which may help further our understanding of the NLE to interrogative suggestibility relationship. A new group of vulnerable interviewees, who are as yet unrecognized by the police or courts, has also been identified.     

The Portuguese adaptation of the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS1) in a sample of inmates

This paper comprises two studies which address the validity of the Portuguese adaptation of the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale, GSS1. In study 1, the means and standard deviations for the suggestibility results of a sample of Portuguese inmates (N = 40, M_age = 37.5 years, SD = 8.1) were compared to those of a sample of Icelandic inmates (Gudjonsson, 1997; Gudjonsson & Sigurdsson, 1996). Portuguese inmates' results were in line with the original results. In study 2, the means and standard deviations for the suggestibility results of the sample of Portuguese inmates were compared to those of a general Portuguese population sample (N = 57, M_age = 36.1 years, SD = 12.7). The forensic sample obtained significantly higher scores in suggestibility measures than the general population sample. ANOVA confirmed that the increased suggestibility in the inmates sample was due to the limited memory capacity of this latter group. Given that the results of both studies 1 and 2 are in keeping with the author's original results (Gudjonsson, 1997), this may be regarded as a confirmation of the validity of the Portuguese GSS1.     

Personality predictors of self-reported offending in Icelandic students

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between self-reported offending and personality. A total of 1603 students in further education in Iceland completed the Mak Self-Reported Delinquency Scale as well as a number of psychological tests, namely the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ and IVE), the Gough Socialisation Scale, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Gudjonsson Compliance Scale. Multiple regression analyses showed that five out of the 10 individual personality scales contributed 27 and 30 per cent to self-reported offending for males and females, respectively. Overall, the Gough Socialisation Scale and EPQ psychoticism contributed most to the variance in self-reported offending, but impulsivity, extraversion and a low lie score also added significantly to the variance after interactions among the personality measures had been taken into account. Some gender differences emerged with impulsivity being a better predictor of offending among the males than females. Overall, the findings give strong support for the hypothesis that personality, particularly those relating to antisocial personality traits, is significantly related to self-reported offending in both males and females.     

The Role of Suggestibility in Determinations of Miranda Abilities: A Study of the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales

Traditionally, high levels of suggestibility have been widely assumed to be linked with diminished Miranda abilities, especially in relationship to the voluntariness of waivers. The current investigation examined suggestibility on the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales in a multisite study of pretrial defendants. One important finding was the inapplicability of British norms to American jurisdictions. Moreover, suggestibility appeared unrelated to Miranda comprehension, reasoning, and detainees’ perceptions of police coercion. In testing rival hypotheses, defendants with high compliance had significantly lower Miranda comprehension and ability to reason about exercising Miranda rights than their counterparts with low compliance. Implications of these findings to forensic practice are examined.     

Motivation for offending and personality

Purpose. The main aim of the study was to examine the relationship between motivation for offending and personality. Method. A specially constructed Offending Motivation Questionnaire (OMQ) was developed along the lines of Farrington's (1986, 1993) theoretical framework. The OMQ, the Mak Self‐Reported Delinquency Scale, the Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (GCS), the Gough Socialisation Scale, the Rosenberg Self‐Esteem Scale, and the Gudjonsson Blame Attribution Inventory (BAI‐R) were administered to two groups of students: college students and university students. Results. Factor analysis of the OMQ revealed four motivational factors for offending (Compliance, Provocation, Financial, Excitement) and one further factor associated with the failure to appreciate the consequences of the criminal act. As predicted, the GCS correlated significantly with a compliance motive (i.e. being coerced, manipulated, or tricked into crime by a peer, or eagerness to please a peer), whereas the remaining four factors were associated with a low score on the Gough Socialisation Scale. External and Mental Element attributions were mainly found to be associated with provocation and consequences factors. Conclusions. The findings support the view that there is a relationship between the motivation for offending, failure to appreciate the consequences of one's actions and personality. Further research should focus on studying this relationship among criminal populations.     

Shortened versions of the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale meet the standards

Purpose. The Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS; Gudjonsson, 1984, 1997 ) is a well‐established forensic tool for measuring interrogative suggestibility. However, one restriction of this tool is that it requires an extensive testing procedure. The present study examined whether shorter versions of the GSS yield similar results as the original GSS procedure. Methods. One group (N=20) was given a shortened version of the GSS that consisted of an immediate recall test and the specific questions. GSS scores in this group were compared with those in a group (N=20) that had the standard procedure which includes a retention interval and immediate and delayed recall tests. A third group (N=20) was administered a shortened procedure in which the 20 GSS questions immediately followed the GSS story. In the fourth group (N=20), participants were given the retention interval, but no recall tests were administered. Results. ANOVA showed no differences in GSS scores amongst the four groups. Post hoc power analyses indicated that these non‐significant findings were not the result of a power problem and that larger sample sizes are expected to yield comparable results. Further analyses showed that neither the retention delay nor the recall tests affected suggestibility scores. Conclusions. These results suggest that shortened procedures for administering the GSS may be employed in situations where time is a key factor.     

How well does the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale for Children,version 2 predict the recall of false details among children with and without intellectual disabilities?

Purpose . This study explored the effectiveness of the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale for Children, version 2 in predicting the tendency of older school‐aged children (with and without intellectual disabilities) to generate errors in an independent suggestibility paradigm. Method . Sixty‐nine children with an intellectual disability (aged 9–14 years) and 50 mainstream children matched for chronological age participated in a 30‐minute magic show that was staged at their school. Three days later, the children participated in a separate biasing interview that provided seven true and seven false details about the magic show. The following day, the children participated in a second interview where they were required to recall the magic show in their own words and answer a series of cued‐recall questions. Between 1 and 2 weeks later, the children were administered the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale‐2 (GSS‐2). Results . While there was no significant association between performance on the GSS‐2 and the independent suggestibility paradigm for the children with an intellectual disability, the chronological age‐matched children's yield scores predicted their reporting of both false‐new details and false‐interviewer suggestions for the independent event. Conclusion . When predicting children's recall of false details, the GSS‐2 appears to be more useful with mainstream school‐aged children compared with children who have an intellectual disability.     

Verbal ability,depression, and anxiety as correlates of interrogative suggestibility in children exposed to life adversities

In the present study, we assess the relationship of verbal ability, depression, and anxiety with interrogative suggestibility (IS) in a sample of children exposed to life adversities and requiring assistance by the governmental social service (n?=?39), as compared with normal controls (n?=?36). The Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale 2 was administered to participants in a battery including measures of memory capacity, verbal ability, depression, and anxiety. The finding showed that the ‘assisted’ children were significantly more suggestible than the controls with a large effect size for Yield 1 and total suggestibility. In addition, IS was negatively correlated with verbal memory and ability, but not with anxiety and depression. The two groups differed as to their level of total suggestibility after adjusting for verbal ability. Implications of the findings for the forensic assessment of vulnerable subjects are discussed.     

Examining the Role of Interrogative Suggestibility in Miranda Rights Comprehension in Adolescents

This study aimed to further clarify the association between interrogative suggestibility and Miranda rights comprehension in adolescents; in particular, we examined whether intellectual ability (IQ) serves as a mediator of this relationship. Participants completed Grisso’s Miranda Instruments, the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence, and the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale. Many youth demonstrated poor comprehension of their rights, particularly younger and less intellectually capable adolescents. Both yield and shift components of interrogative suggestibility were inversely related to rights comprehension; however, IQ fully mediated these relationships. Neither demographic variables (gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status after controlling for IQ, and English as a second language (ESL) status) nor previous police experience were significantly associated with rights comprehension in the present sample. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

Interrogative suggestibility,self‐esteem,and the influence of negative life‐events

Purpose. Past research has frequently demonstrated the impact of life adversity on the behaviour and mindset of individuals. In terms of the formal police interview, the experience of negative life‐events may have an effect upon interviewee performance. This study, therefore, aims to investigate how negative life‐events may influence interviewee performance on the Gudjonsson suggestibility scale (GSS). Moreover, self‐esteem will also be investigated in relation to both the experience of negative life‐events and interrogative suggestibility. Method. Sixty participants were administered the GSS1. In between the immediate and delayed recall phases, interviewees were asked to complete the culture‐free self‐esteem inventory, the life‐events questionnaire and the Eysenck personality questionnaire. Results. Negative life‐events (NLEs) were significantly correlated with all of the GSS suggestibility scores (yield 1, yield 2, shift and total Suggestibility). Contrary to past research, however, self‐esteem scores were not significantly related to any of the GSS components or to NLE scores. Conclusion. This paper is the first to show a link between the experience of NLEs and GSS scores. The findings suggest that interviewees reporting a high number of NLEs are significantly more susceptible to the leading questions, as well as to negative feedback, administered during the GSS interview. Erroneous reports and false confessions may thus be more likely with such interviewees, potentially classifying them as vulnerable witnesses.     

The relationship of compliance with anxiety,self-esteem,paranoid thinking and anger

Abstract

The aim of the study was to assess the relationship of compliance with anxiety, self-esteem, paranoid thinking, and anger. The Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (GCS), the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, the Paranoia/Suspiciousness Questionnaire (PSQ), and the Novaco Anger Scale (NAS) were administered to 167 University students Compliance correlated positively with state and trait anxiety, low self-esteem, paranoia and suspiciousness, and negatively with acting out feelings of anger (the Behavioural Domain of the NAS). Multiple regression of the test scores showed that paranoid thinking was the single best predictor of compliance. The implications are discussed. It is important to replicate the study on special populations, such as offenders and psychiatric patients, who have problems with low self-esteem, paranoid thinking, and anger.     

Interrogative suggestibility: Was it just compliance or a genuine false memory?

Purpose. Interrogative suggestibility, as measured by the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales (GSS), is an independent form of suggestibility arising in the forensic/legal context. So far, an unresolved issue that may have different implications when measuring suggestibility is to what extent the scales measure internalization of suggested materials or just compliance with the interrogator. Methods . Internalization of suggested materials and compliance were here measured using a source identification task. In Experiment 1, participants were administered the GSS2 and immediately afterwards asked to perform the source identification task on the items presented in the scale. In Experiment 2, half of the participants were administered the source identification task immediately and half after a 24‐hr delay. Results . In both experiments a higher proportion of compliant responses were found. Participants internalized more suggested information after questioning (Yield 1) and made more compliant responses after negative feedback (Shift). In Experiment 2, participants in the delayed condition internalized less material than those in the immediate condition. Conclusions : Different processes appear to underlie Yield 1 and Shift scores in the GSS2. The former may include both internalization of suggested materials and compliance, while the second appears to be mostly due to compliance with the interrogator. When administering the GSS2 in a forensic/legal context as vulnerability predictor for making false confessions, or proneness to develop false memories through the internalization of suggested material, including a source identification task may provide additional information on the type of coping style and memory characteristics of the examinee.     

Negative emotional states,life adversity,and interrogative suggestibility

Purpose. Interrogative suggestibility has been shown to vary according to cognitive and personality factors and if reliably measured may predict performance in real forensic interviews. It is therefore of both theoretical and practical interest to identify which psychological factors are most closely related to suggestible responding. This study examines the extent to which individual differences in negative emotional states predict performance on a measure of interrogative suggestibility and also tests the assumption that self‐reports of negative life events are associated with suggestibility. Method. A non‐clinical sample (N= 80) of participants was administered the brief form of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS‐21), the Life Experiences Survey (LES), and the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale (GSS‐1). Results. Negative emotional states were found to correlate positively, although moderately, with all of the suggestibility measures. Multiple regression analyses found significant predictive models emerged for Yield 1, Yield 2, and Total Suggestibility. Each of these predicted a small proportion of the variance. Negative life event impact ratings were not associated with interrogative suggestibility. Conclusions. The findings suggest that brief self‐report measures of negative emotional states are limited as predictors of interrogative suggestibility. The results also call into question the predictive utility of traditional checklist measures of life adversity for forensic purposes.     

Suggestibility and children with mild learning disabilities: The use of the cognitive interview

Abstract

The aims of this paper were firstly to identify any differences in the level of suggestibility between 20 7–9-year-old children with mild learning disabilities and 20 children with average academic ability using the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale 2 (GSS2) and, secondly, to note the impact of the cognitive interview on the response patterns of children with mild learning disabilities.

On the GSS2, average academic ability children recalled significantly more correct details than children with mild learning disabilities. There was no significant difference between the two groups of children on distortions, fabrications, total confabulations or on any of the four measures of suggestibility.

In the second part of the study, 38 children with mild learning disabilities watched a filmed event and then were interviewed using either a standard or a modified version of the cognitive interview. Following this, all participants were asked specific questions, some of which incorporated misleading information. One week later each participant was re-questioned. This time critical questions were included about the truth of the presuppositions introduced in the initial interview session. It was found that the cognitive interview elicited significantly more correct and incorrect details than a standard interview with no significant difference in fabrications. Use of the cognitive interview did not significantly affect susceptibility to subsequent misleading suggestions.     

THE RELATIONSHIP OF ALCOHOL WITHDRAWAL SYMPTOMS TO SUGGESTIBILITY AND COMPLIANCE

People who are experiencing alcohol withdrawal are disadvantaged in terms of their ability to cope with leading questions and interrogative pressure (i.e. interrogative suggestibility). What had not been studied previously was the relationship of the severity of alcohol withdrawal symptoms with suggestibility and compliance. Suggestibility and compliance scores, obtained during the first week of hospital admission, were correlated with the severity of alcohol symptoms measured on a daily basis over a 7‐day period in a group of 393 patients attending treatment for alcohol abuse problems. Separate analyses were performed for the male and female patients. Significant gender differences emerged. Among males, alcohol withdrawal symptoms correlated positively with suggestibility and compliance across days. In contrast, among the females alcohol withdrawal symptoms were not significantly correlated with suggestibility and compliance, but were related to confabulations in memory recall. The findings suggest that in relation to psychological vulnerabilities during questioning, alcohol withdrawal symptoms are associated with different psychological factors in males and females. The findings have implications for the potential unreliability of information obtained from people interviewed during alcohol withdrawal.     

Effects of personality,interrogation techniques and plausibility in an experimental false confession paradigm

Purpose. The goal of the present study was to investigate the effects of personality variables, interrogation techniques and the plausibility level of an alleged transgression on the experimental elicitation of false confessions. Methods. Two hundred and nineteen undergraduate students assessed on measures of compliance, self‐esteem, locus of control and interrogative suggestibility participated in the Kassin and Kiechel (1996) paradigm. Experimental manipulations included minimization and maximization interrogation techniques and high and low plausibility of the alleged typing mistake to examine rates of false confession and internalization. Results. The overall false confession and internalization rates across all conditions were 43 and 10%, respectively. An increased likelihood of false confession behaviour was associated with higher Shift scores on the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale, the use of minimization interrogation techniques and an increase in the plausibility of the allegation. Females were more likely to falsely confess than males in the high plausibility condition, whereas Caucasian and Asian participants were equally likely to falsely confess. Personality variables, such as compliance, most influenced the behaviour of males and Asians. Conclusions. The results of this study offer insight into false confession behaviour, suggesting that individuals who have a tendency to change their responses in the face of negative feedback may be more prone to false confession behaviour. The findings also serve to highlight the dangers of using minimization interrogation techniques and elucidate the limited generalizability of the paradigm to situations in which the alleged transgression is less plausible.     

Generalizability of a two-factor measure of young children's suggestibility in Norway and the USA

Abstract

We discuss the development of the Book Suggestibility Scale for Children (BSSC), a two-factor suggestibility measure developed as an alternative to the Video Suggestibility Scale for Children (VSSC; Scullin & Ceci, Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 843–856, 2001). In study 1, both the BSSC and the VSSC were administered to 60 American preschool children. Children responded affirmatively to inaccurate leading questions (Yield) and changed their answers in response to negative feedback from interviewers (Shift) in a similar manner on both scales. In study 2 we found that the BSSC was useful for studies of suggestibility in contexts other than America because 62 Norwegian preschool children responded to questions in a similar manner to an age-range and vocabulary matched group of 31 American children. Results support a two-factor model of suggestibility, although Yield appears to measure suggestibility across scales and situations more consistently than does Shift. American age-matched samples had significantly higher Shift and Yield 2 scores than the Norwegian sample.