W and the design of the na

e browse background and design navigational maps properly in VE and WWW for reducing cognitive burden and improving 搃mmersion?in VE.virtual environments, www, hypertext, disorientation0心理科学进展Journal of Developments In Psychology76-82B845F102;1;E;FF102_1;沈昉000     

Outlining the Shadow of the Axe—On Restorative Justice and the Use of Trial and Punishment

Most proponents of restorative justice admit to the need to find a well defined place for the use of traditional trial and punishment alongside restorative justice processes. Concrete answers have, however, been wanting more often than not. John Braithwaite is arguably the one who has come the closest, and here I systematically reconstruct and critically discuss the rules or principles suggested by him for referring cases back and forth between restorative justice and traditional trial and punishment. I show that we should be sceptical about at least some of the answers provided by Braithwaite, and, thus, that the necessary use of traditional punishment continues to pose a serious challenge to restorative justice, even at its current theoretical best.

Policing and the Feeling of Safety: the Rise (and Fall?) of Community Policing in the Nordic Countries

A major trend in the Nordic countries is the increasing focus on citizens' perceptions of safety, the enhancement of which is seen as a task for the police. One way to accomplish this has been the introduction of proximity policing. Existing research on the subject from all the Nordic countries is evaluated, with special focus on a comprehensive evaluation of a Danish experiment. The evaluations demonstrate that the concept of proximity policing has had limited success, and it has been abandoned in Finland and Norway. The article concludes by offering some explanations for the lack of success, among these the high level of perceived safety already present in the Nordic countries, the lack of causal relation between police visibility and citizens' perception of safety, and the lack of tradition for citizen involvement in the Nordic welfare states.     

mHealth and data protection – the letter and the spirit of consent legal requirements

In this article, the role of consent is discussed in the framework of fundamental rights and in the context of mobile health technologies (mHealth), such as smart phones, mobile phones or tablet/palm-held computing devices to provide healthcare. The authors surmise how, in practice, although there will be more emphasis on informed consent formally, there will be less space for genuine individual consent. This betrays a focus more on the letter of consent rules in data protection than their spirit. This risks reducing consent to a tick box operation in a manner analogous to consumer transactions, something manifestly unsuitable for consent, even if only in informational terms, during medical procedures.     

‘Honourable’ Behaviour and the Conceptualisation of Violence in Ethnic-Based Organised Crime Groups: An Examination of the Albanian Kanun and the Code of the Chinese Triads

Within Albania and China and their respective diasporas, a history of extreme violence, both official and unofficial, is widely accepted but not easily understood from a Western perspective. Over the course of centuries both societies have experienced turmoil and in the 20^th century spent decades under the disastrous communist dictatorships of Enver Hohxa (1944–1985) and Mao Zedong (1949–1976). Acts of organised/collective violence should be interpreted in their historical and cultural contexts. As both Albania and China underwent considerable internecine feuding, and all manners of deprivations and oppressions under the governance and proclamations of their various rulers, it may not be surprising that their subjects became inured to violence. Violence is neither meaningless nor peculiar to China/Albania. One explanation arises from the continuing purchase of ancient codes of ‘extreme violence’. This paper describes two ancient instruments justifying ‘excessive violence’ that have continued to exist even today and directly link them to the violent behaviour of contemporary Albanian and Chinese organised crime groups. The paper will explore the historico-cultural origins of Albanian and Chinese organised crime and their recent reputation as ‘ultra-violent’ actors. Specifically we examine the 15^th century Albanian legal code known as the Kanun of Lek Dukagjini, and the 17^th century code of the Chinese Hung Mun (Triad Society).     

Representative and Useful? An Empirical Assessment of the Representative Nature and Impact of the Scottish Youth Parliament

Youth parliaments provide a channel for young people to engage positively with the political system and benefit themselves and their communities. Using survey data of former members of the Scottish Youth Parliament (SYP), and comparing them with a variety of population data, the paper investigates whether the SYP is representative of the Scottish population, and whether engagement with the youth parliament has had an impact on members' personal and skills development, and associational activities in later life. Results suggest that former members of the youth parliament are representative of the general population and that personal and skills development has been high. In addition, an overwhelming majority of former members perceive positive impacts from their experiences. However, volunteering, although higher among former members compared with the population, is disproportionately favoured by the very same social groups that are known to volunteer more. The authors interpret this as evidence that the SYP has some way to go towards engendering volunteerism. These results are likely to be of interest to those who are either studying or engaging the younger generation in activities that sustain a healthy democratic regime.     

Are the perpetrators of violence one and the same? Exploring the co-occurrence of perpetration of physical aggression in the United States

Important gaps exist in our understanding of aggressive behavior and the extent to which aggression involves one or more types of victims. This information is critical for determining the utility of integrated approaches for violence prevention versus continuation of independent efforts for reducing community violence, partner violence, and child maltreatment. To better understand the overlap in aggressive behaviors within the general population, the authors examine the co-occurrence of self-reports of physically striking strangers, acquaintances, intimate partners, and children among a nationally representative sample of 3,024 U.S. adults. The findings from this cross-sectional random digit dial telephone survey show that more than a third of the population reports engaging in at least one form of aggression and that, of these, a third had perpetrated violence against more than one type of victim. The percent of respondents who reported perpetrating violence against more than one type of victim range from 13% (percent of those striking a friend or acquaintance who also struck a child) to 34% (percent of those striking a friend or acquaintance who also struck a stranger). Furthermore, engaging in one type of aggression substantially increases the odds of engaging in another from 1.5 to 4 times. The findings suggest potential value in pursuing both integrated and independent approaches in research and prevention.     

Reconciling Accountability and Fiscal Prudence? A Case Study of the Budgetary Role and Impact of the German Parliament

Based on a case study, this article argues that the goals of accountability and fiscal prudence can be reconciled in the context of the parliamentary budget process. It captures the institutional setting for the budgetary work of the German parliament, in legal, organisational and procedural terms and with regard to its resources. The article then provides an assessment of the budgetary impact of the legislature against the goals of public expenditure management: aggregate fiscal discipline, allocative efficiency, and operational efficiency. The conclusion indicates that some standard arguments cannot explain why the budgetary work of parliament in this case has tended to result in lower deficits and improved public expenditure management. Rather, it is argued, a system that allows for parliament to buy into the overall budgetary aims and policies of the government through a co-operative process facilitates the reconciliation of accountability and fiscal prudence. At the same time, there is scope to refine the public expenditure management model for its application to the comparative study of the budgetary outcomes of legislative behaviour.     

A commentary on the principle of the child’s best interests —the weakness and improvement of marriage and family law

International documents like the Declaration of the Rights of the Child (1959) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) propose that in mediating on children issues, the best interests of the child should be the primary consideration. In China, the Constitution and the Law on the Protection of Minors have already set out the terms in principle for the protection of minors, however, it has not been defined in the Marriage Law (2001). In order to enforce the commitment of respecting and safeguarding human rights, the child’s best interest principle should be established in marriage and family law, along with amending related provisions.     

Changes of the Legal Nature and the Ownership of Underground Garage——As the disputes of “Today Garden”

《物权法》的实施导致地下车库法律性质和地位的变化,也改变了其权利归属认定的逻辑前提.《物权法》实施前,地下车库必须依附于物业小区的宗地使用权,没有独立存在的基础,只能为区分所有建筑物的附属物.交易中未约定时,其权属随商品房的移转而一并移转;《物权法》实施后,借助于土地的分层利用制度,地下车库成为可独立交易物,由此为开发商保留地下车库所有权提供了可能,就其所有权取得无特别约定时,地下车库仍为其初始权利人——开发商所有.因此《物权法》颁布前后,有关地下车库权属判断的衔接问题尤为凸显.     

An information network of officials? Dissecting the role and nature of the network of parliamentary representatives in the European Parliament

Enhancing the role of national parliaments in the European Union’s decision-making process has for some time been a popular way in which policy-makers have sought to address legitimacy problems in the European Union, the Early Warning Mechanism being only one example. In response to these developments, an increasing number of scholars have addressed the question of how parliaments make use of these powers in practice. An important dimension of the process – the role of parliamentary officials in parliamentary scrutiny and control – has so far been neglected in the literature. Against this background, this article examines the role of the representatives of national parliaments in the European Parliament with the aim of understanding the role and the nature of this ‘bureaucratic network’. While falling short of an epistemic community, these officials play an important role in enabling parliamentary scrutiny through the dissemination of information.     

Harassment and stalking of Members of the United Kingdom Parliament: associations and consequences

A survey concerning intrusive/aggressive behaviours towards MPs was administered at Westminster, and in Queensland, New Zealand and Norway. Follow-up interviews were conducted with a sample at Westminster. This paper examines the experiences and associations of the 239 Westminster responders, of whom 81% had experienced intrusive/aggressive behaviours, 18% been subject to attack/attempted attack, and 53% stalked or harassed. Being stalked and subject to certain types of intrusive/aggressive behaviour were associated with younger age and being in the Commons five years or less, but serious incidents were more common in those who had been MPs for longer. There were no associations with brief periods of harassment. Some differences with party and constituency type emerged. Mental illness was prominent amongst perpetrators. Motives predominantly concerned personal grievances. Significant proportions of MPs suffered psychological ill-effects, necessitating inconvenient behaviour changes. Internal consistencies in these results and similarities to other sites are explored, and their implications discussed.     

In the eye of the beholder? An examination of the inter-rater reliability of the LSI-R and YLS/CMI in a correctional agency

PurposeTo examine the inter-rater reliability of two risk assessment tools: The Level of Service Inventory-Revised (LSI-R) and the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (YLS/CMI).MethodsTwo identical experiments are reported. For both studies, a random sample of 10 offenders were interviewed and videotaped with each tool (totaling 20 offenders). The tapes were then shown to a random selection of 20 raters (for a total of 40 raters) employed at a state agency. The fully-crossed design allowed each of the raters to rate the each of the cases, resulting in 200 total risk score observations for each tool. Inter-rater reliability analyses were then conducted.ResultsThe LSI-R demonstrated adequate to fair reliability, with certain domains showing lower reliability. Overall, the LSI-R had an ICC of .65. The YLS/CMI demonstrated higher reliability (ICC of .78). In addition, for the LSI-R study, comparisons were made between staff raters who work in a facility versus those in the community (e.g., probation officers). For the YLS/CMI study, comparisons were made between incarcerated offenders versus probationers. Neither comparison yielded consistent differences.ConclusionsThe YLS/CMI is generally reliable. The LSI-R showed less reliability. However, each study showed certain domains with less than ideal reliability.