比较法视野下代孕案件的处理

代孕既可分为局部代孕和完全代孕,也可分为利他代孕和商业代孕.有的国家完全禁止代孕,有的国家有条件接受代孕.影响代孕合同效力的因素主要有公共政策、合同的商业性、代孕中的血缘关系以及女性身体权等,它们或单独、或共同否定代孕合同的效力.尽管我国法律禁止代孕,但代孕现象却客观存在,我国法院审理代孕案件存在定性模糊、适用法律不当、判决理由不清、以调解方式纵容违法行为等问题.建议我国法院根据当事人的诉求确定案件的性质,以正确适用法律;根据个案实际情况分析“公序良俗”的内容,增强裁判的说服力;调解结案应关注其社会效果.     

浅析代孕在中国从“堵”到“疏”的体系设计

基于我国广泛的需求和人口老龄化的压力，代孕“堵”不如“疏”。具体而言，在确已穷尽其他途径的前提下，可同时允许利他型代孕和商业代孕，但应禁止部分代孕。利他型代孕的公益性和商业代孕的商业性决定二者应分别管理，但都应坚持委托人申请、孕母登记备案等制度。现行法中，《民法典》应为代孕的引入扫清障碍，明确代孕产生的亲子关系，其他部门规章应删除禁止代孕或与之相冲突的条款。未来可由国家卫生健康委员会联合其他部门出台一部部门规章，专门规范代孕的实施和开展。     

论“完全代孕”协议的效力及其法律规制

"完全代孕"是真正具有互助、慈善和利他性质的代孕行为。"完全代孕"协议是一种特殊的委托代理合同,是一种具有较强专属性的身份性契约。在现行法律框架内应适用合同法的有关规定,对于其中涉及亲权和抚养权转移问题的,则应当适用婚姻法的有关规定。未来立法应当通过严格限定代孕行为的主体资格,规范"完全代孕"协议的内容,规范代孕协议的订立程序,规定"完全代孕"协议的解除条件和程序等,将"完全代孕"协议纳入法律规制的范畴。     

关于代孕纠纷法律问题与代孕制度构建的思考

近年来,因代孕引起的亲权确认纠纷、探视权纠纷逐渐增多,在当前"无法可依"的前提下,代孕协议效力、代孕生育亲子关系应如何让认定?本文将结合国外相关立法、我国国情与实际探究上述问题,并试立足当前法律现状与国情合理构建代孕制度。     

从妇女人权与法律角度研究“代孕”问题

《妇女与国际人权法第二卷妇女权利的国际和区域视角》中有这样一段话：妇女在历史上任何时间都被买卖着,“但这些习俗似乎只是在更‘文明的社会’才变得更加明目张胆和商业化”。然而,人肉交易在社会和法律话语中始终处于边缘地位。之所以引用这段话,是想强调：之所以选择这个论证角度,就是因为虽然其他的法律因素也很重要,但对妇女人权问题的关注更加迫切。同时想说明：妇女人权问题是一个世界性问题,而这里从妇女人权与法律的角度探讨“代孕”这个问题,就要有世界性的视角。本文通过对“代孕”社会现状的了解、对“代孕”本质的理解、对“代孕”中的歧视和不公平现象的阐释,透视“代孕”中蕴含的女性人权与法律问题。     

"代孕网"沉渣泛起借腹生子底线何在

代人受孕,这是一个无论从法律上、道德上还是医学上都备受争议的话题。由于其与社会道德和法律相背离,所以国内的供需双方长期以来一直以隐蔽的方式进行交易。我国现有的法规禁止以任何形式买卖配子、合子、胚胎,医疗机构和医务人员不得实施任何形式的代孕手术。但笔者最近发现,一度陷入沉寂的“代孕网”又开始暗流涌动,从事着“有偿代孕中介”的职能。原来完全在地下进行的有偿代孕交易正在慢慢地“半公开化”……“代孕网”暗流涌动自称公益性网站日前,笔者在一个网上论坛看到“诚聘代孕志愿者”的帖子“:招代孕志愿者,非色情,绝对真实,高…     

中国代孕规制的模式选择

代孕是一个法律、伦理上的共同难题,国外存在着私法自治型、政府管制型、完全禁止型三种规制模式。中国政府采取了完全禁止的规制模式,却未能取得、也很难取得预期的效果。代孕是实现生育权的一种方式,却可能与代孕者、小孩的人格尊严和公序良俗相抵触。国家对代孕的规制,应该本着基本权利的基本原理,考量社会的接纳程度,在生育权、人格尊严与公序良俗之间作出适当的权衡,从而抛弃完全禁止的规制模式,履行其对多种基本权利的保护义务。     

没什么大惊小怪——为“代孕”辩护

卫生部2001年2月颁布了《人类辅助生殖技术管理办法》，对代孕现象作了官方的表态，其第三条规定“医疗机构和医务人员不得实施任何形式的代孕技术”；第22条还规定医疗机构若违反该办法实施代孕技术，将“由省、自治区、直辖市人民政府卫生行政部门给予警告、3万元以下的罚款，并给予有关责任人行政处分；构成犯罪的，依法追究刑事责任”。至此，争论激烈的代孕问题草草收场。     

完全代孕合同合法化研究

作为人工生殖辅助技术的表现形式之一,代孕合同对传统民法理论、社会道德及家庭伦理观念提出重大挑战,由此引发的诸多道德法律问题已被国外学术界所研究。而我国学术界对代孕理论问题研究仍基本处于空白状态,卫生部2001年制定的《人类辅助生殖技术管理办法》中明确禁止实施一切形式的代孕技术,完全否定了代孕合同合法性,而研究代孕合同合法性问题正是解决相关民法问题的基础。本文立足于探讨完全代孕合同合法性问题,试图确定其合法性的权利基础,提出我国代孕合同立法建议,以期解决相关民法实践问题。     

有限开放代孕之法理批判与我国代孕规制的法律选择

有限开放代孕并没有体现法律的实体正义，借助代孕才能实现的不孕者的生育权是一项不为法律认可和保护的伪权利，有限开放代孕并不能维护社会和谐。禁止代孕至少是现阶段和今后一段时期内我国立法的必然选择。法律对代孕的禁止是为了将人类辅助生殖技术的负面效应控制在人类社会可以承受的范围之内，而不在于消灭代孕。我国现行禁止代孕的立法存在明显欠缺，需要加以修改和完善。     

Surrogacy: is there a case for legal prohibition?

Surrogacy arrangements are a complex and challenging issue for legal regulation. On the one hand, if we wish to promote personal autonomy and enable the infertile to experience parenthood, there is a case for allowing these arrangements to proceed. However, objections to legal sanctioning of surrogacy include concerns for the surrogate and the child born through the surrogacy arrangement. Legally sanctioning surrogacy may also adversely affect social conceptions of women's roles or may be considered a form of commodifying women's reproductive capacities. This article examines these challenges to allowing surrogacy, but concludes that surrogacy should not be legally prohibited.     

Surrogacy,Identity, Parentage and Childrenʼs Rights – Through the Eyes of a Child

In this article I will focus on two important aspects of children's rights which are impacted by artificial reproductive technology (particularly surrogacy); being the rights to identity and the rights to legal parentage. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child acknowledges the importance of a child's right to identity, to be protected from discrimination on the basis of the status or beliefs of the child's parents, legal guardians or family members. For many children born through surrogacy arrangements, they may have only one or no legally recognized parent. The adults caring for them may have parental responsibility orders but this falls well short of providing children with the benefits and protections that legal parentage does. The issue of identity can be complex. Increasingly, states have recognized the importance of children knowing the circumstances of their birth and being able to access biological and genetic information including medical information. From a child's perspective the issues of identity and parenthood are intertwined. Given the importance of identity, more needs to be done to ensure that identifying information about children born as a result of artificial reproductive technology is properly stored and readily accessible for these children. Denying a child legal parentage when there are no concerns about the care being provided by their parents cannot be justified when considered from a children's rights perspective.     

Regulating surrogacy--a contravention of human rights?

On the 2nd of October 2000, The Human Rights Act 1998 came into full force, signalling the incorporation of The European Convention on Human Rights into U.K. law. Areas of law believed to be inconsistent with the Convention may now be challenged in both The European Court of Human Rights and domestic courts. This article considers whether existing laws on the regulation of access to infertility services, in particular surrogacy, will be deemed incompatible with the ECHR. Human rights as enshrined within Articles 8 and 12 will be examined in light of recent suggestions that there may arise legal challenges by those who have had access to reproductive services restricted or denied. It will be shown that, although existing and potential future controls may arguably infringe these rights, it is nevertheless unlikely that they will be held to be in contravention of The Human Rights Act 1998.     

Law of assisted reproductive surrogacy in Malaysia: a critical overview

Both traditional and gestational surrogacy are now entering the public mind as a major public policy issue, because of concern for apparent truncation of the surrogate mother’s rights. This article sets out to investigate some key relevant rights, the policy issues as yet unresolved, and the character of the current regulatory regime. Modern medicine, specifically assisted reproductive technology, has made legislation obsolete in many jurisdictions around the world, including in Malaysia. These new medical practices present many significant legal problems, with which the courts and legislators still struggle. A proposed statute, the Assisted Reproductive Technique Services Act, aimed at regulating reproductive technologies, including surrogacy arrangements, will be introduced in the Malaysian parliament soon. The proposed Malaysian Act will address issues such as surrogacy, sperm or egg banking, and sperm donation. Malaysia is moving cautiously towards regulation on this issue and is trying to avoid becoming a ‘rent-a-womb country’. Thus, this article asks the question as to what policy considerations are in place, in the current Malaysian regulatory regime, to care for the rights of the surrogate mother? It will try to show that there is still a danger that Malaysia could become a ‘rent-a-womb country’, with its necessary implications of property rights over surrogate mothers. The article employs section-by-section synthesis to reach its conclusions. Argument will suggest that the current state of the law in Malaysia, as to both traditional and gestational surrogacy, seems to be that the regulatory regime is a combination of the general law, private ordering, registration and enforceable professional ethics. However, there is no Malaysian statutory law in place, in the contemporary social context, expressly prohibiting a term in a surrogacy contract that might imply property rights over the surrogate mother. This is a serious apparent lacuna in the law, and might suggest that the laws of transnational crime be considered, as an alternative, as applicable to the surrogacy agreement.     

代孕背景下亲子关系的确定

人工生殖技术的发展改变了传统的自然生育方式,给法律上亲子关系的认定带来了巨大的冲击。传统"分娩者为母"原则受到了技术上的挑战,无法满足现实需求;根据基因来源确定亲子关系,在某种情况下背离了捐精者或供卵人的意思自治;而以"儿童最大利益原则"为标准使得代孕子女出生前无法形成有效的身份预期。从代孕协议的效力上来看,代孕协议本身并不与强制性法律法规相悖,也不会对公序良俗造成剧烈的冲击,代孕协议的效力不应被轻易否定。因此,代孕背景下亲子关系应当依据代孕协议确定,并以"儿童最大利益原则"作为补充要素。另外,由于代孕协议涉及到伦理色彩浓厚的身份法领域,其不能简单地适用《合同法》的规定,因此,在代孕协议无效的情况下,应当坚持"身份确定原则",严格限定当事人提起无效之诉的时效,并承认事实抚养关系。     

The proposed model surrogate parenthood act: a legislative response to the challenges of reproductive technology

In this Article, Manus proposes a Model Surrogate Parenthood Act. He examines the medical and scientific history of surrogacy and reviews the jurisprudence in the area, specifically the constitutional relationship between procreation rights and surrogacy. The author asserts that surrogate motherhood cannot be, and indeed, should not be, eradicated through legislation criminalizing it. The proposed Model Act, presented here in its entirety, attempts to reduce the problems inherent in the concept of surrogate parenthood by putting the process under strict court supervision and by zealously protecting the rights of the surrogate mother and the child to be conceived.     

Our Baby,Her Choices: The Need for Enforcement of Gestational Surrogate Contracts

Many women in the Unites States have difficulty getting pregnant or carrying a baby to term. As a result, many couples turn to gestational surrogacy. Surrogacy became public in the United States in the late 1970s. In the mid 1980s, disputes began to arise and are still prevalent today. Courts first attempted to resolve these disputes by looking for public policy guidelines. However, the results were inconsistent. Still today, there is no uniform law. Even in states where surrogate contracts are legal, courts have refused to order specific performance to enforce abortion or reduction provisions. However, courts should not shy away from this. This Note proposes a federal statute mandating that gestational surrogate contracts be enforced thus protecting the rights of intended parents.     

Good intentions and a great divide: Having babies by intending them

Conclusion Thus, there is a compelling policy argument as well as a suggestive constitutional argument that the practice of selling parental rights in general, and in particular the practice of commercial surrogacy, should not be permitted. These arguments favor the approach adopted in New York State as opposed to any more latitudinarian approach that would permit commercial surrogacy. Clearly, if the payment of money in exchange for parental rights should be prohibited, then we have a strong basis on which to reject the intentionalist theory, along with any other theory tht would link the parentage of a child with the payment of money. This conclusion is in no way undermined by the various arguments recited in part V above that favor the intentionalist theory since, as we have seen, these arguments are flawed.The author wishes to thank Gareth Matthews, Alan F. McMichael and John A. Robertson for their extremely valuable comments on earlier drafts of this article and to thank Sharon Rogers for her exceptional and unstinting editorial assistance.     

SURROGACY IN JAPAN: LEGAL IMPLICATIONS FOR PARENTAGE AND CITIZENSHIP

Japan has not yet regulated assisted reproductive technology by law. This lack of rules and regulations leaves to the courts the solution of numerous controversies, and puts patients in a situation of considerable uncertainty about their rights. First, the article uses a Supreme Court case on foreign surrogacy to discuss how courts should decide when there is a conflict between existing laws and the best interest of the child. Then, after describing the current situation and trends of surrogacy in Japan, the article examines a potential problem of coherence in prohibiting surrogacy and at the same time allowing adoption by the intended parents.     

International Law Concerning ART

The article seeks to set out the current international legal landscape concerning international surrogacy arrangements and how domestic law and conventions might impact on international surrogacy arrangements.