The contract theory of patents

Two distinct theories of patents, the “reward theory” and the “contract theory,” are customarily adopted by the courts to justify the patent system. The reward theory maintains that the function of the patent system is to remunerate successful innovators so as to encourage R&D effort. In contrast, the contract theory holds that the function of the patent system is to promote the diffusion of innovative knowledge. Assuming that in the absence of patent protection innovators would rely on trade secrecy, it views patents as a contract between innovators and society whereby a property right is granted in exchange for disclosure.This paper develops an economic analysis of the contract theory of patents. To disentangle the disclosure from the reward motive for granting patents, we assume that the innovation process is entirely serendipitous, so that R&D effort is not a concern. Our main finding is that the disclosure motive alone suffices to justify the grant of patents. The optimal patent duration should strike a balance between the incentive to induce disclosure and the aim of limiting the monopoly distortion induced by patents.     

The battle for patent rights in plant biotechnology: evidence from opposition fillings

This paper describes and analyzes the occurrence and extent of oppositions initiated against plant biotechnology patents granted by the European Patent Office (EPO). The opposition mechanism is a legal procedure that allows any third party to challenge the validity of patents awarded by the EPO. Results indicate that the opposition rate is far greater in plant biotechnology than in other emerging industries. Consistent with theoretical predictions, the empirical findings suggest that opposed patents are disproportionately those that score high on features that proxy for their “value” or “quality”. In contrast to previous findings, however, the results show that large-volume applicants are more likely to be opposed. Because the boundaries of plant biotech patents are ill-defined, large patent portfolios do not promote cooperative behavior such as licensing or settlements. The analysis rejects the hypothesis that awardees are subject to “nuisance” or “frivolous” oppositions. Instead, the opposition procedure serves as an error correction mechanism.     

Exploring the survival of patent licensing: some evidence from French foreign agreements

This paper aims to determine the factors that impact on the duration of technology licensing contracts. Using a transaction costs framework, we derive some propositions related to the influence of the contractual safeguards and of institutions on the failure rate of such agreements. We conduct an empirical investigation based on a new dataset of 250 contracts from the French National Institute of Intellectual Property. We show that the actual duration of licensing agreements (a) is positively associated to their profitability and to the level of technological competition, (b) is positively associated to the presence of a renegotiation clause, and (c) is independent of other contractual or institutional safeguards.     

Geographic and technological R&;D spillovers within the triad: micro evidence from US patents

This paper aims at assessing the magnitude of R&D spillover effects on large international R&D companies’ productivity growth. In particular, we investigate the extent to which R&D spillover effects are intensified by both geographic and technological proximities between spillover generating and receiving firms. We also control for the firm’s ability to identify, assimilate and absorb the external knowledge stock. The results estimated by means of panel data econometric methods (system GMM) indicate a positive and significant impact of both types of R&D spillovers and of absorptive capacity on productivity performance.

电子政务的价值取向：以民为本

我国的电子政务正在建立和发展阶段,确定什么样的价值取向影响着我国电子政务的发展方向。在电子政务所追求的监管和服务这两个目标上,监管也是为了服务,以民为本的服务导向型电子政务才是我国电子政务发展的方向。当前,我国电子政务在价值取向上存在一定的偏差,迫切需要重新定位。以民为本是我国电子政务价值取向的核心,主要包括服务性、高效性、公开性、全面性、协调性、安全性等价值目标。     

证据的内涵与依法取证-以行政处罚证据的收集为分析视角

作为法律程序整体所必不可少的一部分,行政程序与司法程序一样,都在证据的作用下发挥其功能。然而,我国研究更多将目光聚焦于诉讼证据,而对行政程序证据缺乏关注。但实际上,行政机关是依法治国的主要执行官,其与公民的关系比其他任何国家机关更为密切,所以规范行政机关的执法行为无疑成为依法治国的重大课题,其中对行政处罚证据的规范尤其如此。从原则上而言,行政处罚证据理应符合证据“三性”,但警察思维与法官思维上的差异使其对证据有其特殊要求,基于公共利益保护的需要,行政处罚证据的关联性、合法性存在减弱和例外情形,因此,对于“毒树之果”以及通过钓鱼执法、秘密调查等方式所得证据并不必然排除,为此,与其让这些实践中早已普遍存在的行为游离于法外,不如通过立法明确规定其范围、程序和命令禁止事项。     

检审配合的价值基础研究

在中国，审计机关是最高行政机关国务院的下属部门，其实质上是政府的内审部门，行使的是内部监督权，而检察机关是国家的法律监督机关，其行使的更多是一种外部监督权。探讨检审合作的根本价值就在于如何实现两者的内外配合，双剑合壁在反腐败方面发挥两家监督机关的最大效力，实现双方履行职务的双赢。     

The relationship between socio-economic characteristics, victimization and CPTED principles: evidence from the MIMIC model

This study seeks to explore how different house type, socio-economic variables in the neighborhood (length of residence and household income) and residents’ victimization experience influence Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) and its respective principles: natural surveillance, access control, territoriality and maintenance. The study focuses on a sample of 164 inhabitants from a typical neighborhood in the city of Penang, Malaysia. An observation checklist was used to measure all the four principles of CPTED. A Multiple Indicator-Multiple Cause (MIMIC) analysis using AMOS 16.0 was employed to analyze the data at the level of individual property. Each latent factor and the relationships among them were modeled in a priori MIMIC hypothesized model. Prior to the MIMIC analysis, the study employed first and second-order confirmatory factor analysis on CPTED to determine the best indicators for the CPTED construct. The findings confirmed that CPTED is best measured by four principles. The results further indicate that CPTED is associated with a reduced risk of burglary victimization, while household income is positively associated with CPTED. The model shows that territoriality has a negative direct relationship with victimization. There are direct and positive influences of house type on natural surveillance and territoriality, while the length of residence only affects access control.     

An evaluation of a private alternative probation and counseling program: Predicting program outcomes from client characteristics

The purpose of this evaluation was to determine if client characteristics affected selected program outcomes. The sample consisted of 475 clients admitted into a for-profit, private alternative probation and counseling program between November 1, 1998 and February 28, 1999. Multiple regression analyses identified race, previous alcohol and drug treatment, and employment status as significant predictor variables of client compliance. Being able to target client characteristics that are associated with successful program outcomes can help programs fulfill their goals of diversion and costeffectiveness, thus making the most effective use of scarce resources.     

商事仲裁在法价值意义上的探讨

商事仲裁作为解决争议的一种救济方式,相对于调解、诉讼,有其独特的优势所在,这也是仲裁在法价值意义上值得探讨之处。本论文即从商事仲裁的概念、范围引申出仲裁与调解、诉讼的异同比较,然后说明仲裁特有的优势,最后探讨仲裁在法价值上的意义,并从中体现仲裁最终达到正义、公平的法的价值的目的。     

Modeling the Triple Helix from a Small Country Perspective: The Case of Finland

In recent discussions on the science and technology system particularly two perspectives have been visible, one emphasizing the transitory changes in the modes of knowledge production, the other focusing on the institutional integration of the S&T system (Triple Helix). The article analyzes the development of the Finnish S&T system and policy as a national case from the point of view of the Triple Helix thesis. It concludes that both perspectives—systemic transition and integration—are essential for understanding recent changes in S&T, but do not yet cover the whole range of relevant issues. In addition, one should take into account the spatial, or international, dimension of S&T, which is crucial especially when viewed from a small country perspective. Furthermore, it is important to consider the cognitive dimension of S&T, as the socio-cognitive diversity of research fields affects their specific role in the transformation processes.     

股权质押制度的反思与重构——以制度价值为中心的考察

安全、效率和公平是股权质押制度的基本价值取向,但现有股权质押的制度安排,一方面因防范道德风险、市场风险和法律风险的机制漏洞可能危及交易的安全;另一方面,因过于侧重对交易安全的保护而忽视了对交易便捷利益的保护,忽视了对出质人的公平保护,影响了效率和公平;因此,需要对股权质押的制度价值进行准确定位,按照安全优先,兼顾效率和公平的要求,完善我国的股权质押制度,进一步拓宽融资渠道,促进资本市场健康发展。     

简论商业价值与商业秘密侵权损失的评估基准

商业秘密的使用价值是其商业价值,商业价值不同于商品或服务的自身价值,其具有期限不定性、数值波动性、评价相对性等特征。商业价值作为商业秘密侵权损失评估基准具有合理性。在评估商业秘密侵权损失时,应综合考量商业秘密自身价值、商业秘密使用中的商业价值、侵权损害程度等因素。     

沉船沉物强制打捞清除的私法解读

海域和航道所有权既是公法上的所有权,也是民法上的所有权。沉船沉物强制打捞清除在私法原理上是物权法上排除妨害、妨害防止这种物权请求权的行使过程。海事行政主管机关基于对社会公共利益的保护,行使行政权责令责任人打捞清除沉船沉物。     

证券犯罪主体特征的犯罪学分析

在客观环境基本相同的条件下,为什么只有少数人实施证券犯罪,为什么是这些人而不是其他人实施证券犯罪,这从刑法学犯罪构成的角度是难以回答的。而从犯罪学的视角看,则不难发现证券犯罪的主体在智能结构、需要结构和道德法律意识等方面均具有显著的特征,正是这些特征构成了证券犯罪的主观基础。     

Understanding juror perceptions of forensic evidence: investigating the impact of case context on perceptions of forensic evidence strength

The most widely accepted model of juror decision making acknowledges the importance of both the case-specific information presented in the courtroom, as well as the prior general knowledge and beliefs held by each juror. The studies presented in this paper investigated whether mock jurors could differentiate between evidence of varying strengths in the absence of case information and then followed on to determine the influence that case context (and therefore the story model) has on judgments made about the strength of forensic DNA evidence. The results illustrated that mock jurors correctly identified various strengths of evidence when it was not presented with case information; however, the perceived strength of evidence was significantly inflated when presented in the context of a criminal case, particularly when the evidence was of a weak or ambiguous standard. These findings are discussed in relation to the story model, and the potential implications for real juries.     

多层螺旋CT在交通事故尸检中的应用价值

目的在交通事故死亡者尸检中应用多层螺旋CT进行检查,探讨其应用价值。方法随机数字法选取10名因交通事故死亡者的尸体进行常规CT和多层螺旋CT尸检,进行三维重建图像分析,与尸体解剖尸检结果加以对比分析。结果多层螺旋CT诊断与尸体解剖检查一致性高,较常规CT诊断准确。结论在交通事故死亡者尸检中,应用多层螺旋CT诊断,方法简便易行,与常规尸检结果具有较高的诊断一致性,应用价值极高。