Emotion Regulation in Police Officers Following Distress: Effects of Tenure and Critical Incidents

This study focuses on the functionality of emotion regulation of police officers who have or have not experienced a work-related critical incident. Traumatic events experienced by police officers may have long-lasting and significant consequences, including health concerns, emotional difficulties, impairment in social functioning, and they may have an impact on work performance. The hypotheses outline the expected results to include higher scores for officers who had been involved in one or more critical incidents in emotional well-being concerns and more difficulties with emotion regulation as compared to officers who had not experienced a critical incident. The research design employs written instruments including the General Health Questionnaire-30 to measure general emotional well-being, the Impact of Events Scale to measure the impact of a past traumatic event, and the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale to measure current problems with emotion regulation. Participants consist of 76 full-time police officers assigned to patrol in two police agencies. The findings, analyzed through analysis of variance, did not include significant differences between those groups as expected; however, there were unexpected findings. These findings were that although newer officers were less likely to have experienced one or more work-related critical incidents, they measured higher in measures of emotion regulation difficulties and concerns regarding emotional well-being than did the more tenured officers. The social implications of this study include increased officer and agency awareness and increased use of effective intervention. Implications for future study include the need to further explore emotional challenges that may be experienced by new police officers.     

Credibility of the emotional witness: A study of ratings by police investigators

Abstract

Credibility judgments by police investigators were examined. Sixty-nine investigators viewed one of three video-recorded versions of a rape victim's statement where the role was played by a professional actress. The statements were given in a free recall manner with identical wording, but differing in the emotions displayed, termed congruent, neutral and incongruent emotional expressions. Results showed that emotions displayed by the rape victim affected police officers’ judgments of credibility. The victim was judged as most credible when crying and showing despair, and less credible when being neutral or expressing more positive emotions. This result indicates stereotypic beliefs about rape victim behavior among police officers, similar to those found for lay persons. Results are discussed in terms of professional expertise.     

An Examination of Authoritarian Personality Traits among Police Officers: The Role of Experience

This study compared authoritarian traits as determined by MMPI-2 scores between inexperienced versus experienced police officers. The purpose of this comparison was to investigate whether experienced police officers possessed higher levels of authoritarian traits which may be related to years on the job. Results found that inexperienced and experienced police officers tend to be psychologically healthy and do not possess high levels of authoritarian traits. Some specific differences emerged with inexperienced police officers demonstrating higher scores on ASP (antisocial practices) but lower scores on HY (emotional reactions to stress). Possible reasons for these results are discussed.     

Investigating the demographic and attitudinal predictors of rape myth acceptance in U.K. Police officers: developing an evidence-base for training and professional development

Efforts to understand rape myth acceptance (RMA) as a cognitive framework in police, unifying key cognitive/attitudinal and demographic factors into one coherent model, are lacking. Using a cross-sectional survey design, predictors of RMA were assessed by linear hierarchical regression, including demographic (age, length of service, gender, experience of specialist rape investigation training) and attitudinal factors (hostility towards women, sexist attitudes, and explicit power/sex beliefs) among officers from a large U.K. police force (N = 912). The final model explained 44% of variance in RMA. Gender and previous specialist training significantly predicted RMA, but to a much lesser extent than attitudinal variables, which explain 42% of RMA variance. Only specialist rape investigation training remained significant when attitudinal variables were added. The greater contribution from attitudinal variables suggests that efforts to address RMA in officers must consider the broader attitudinal structures underpinning RMA. Findings highlight implications for evidence-based training for rape investigators.     

Mental health at the intersections: The impact of complex needs on police contact and custody for Indigenous Australian men

Indigenous Australians experience significant social risk, vulnerability and disadvantage. Nowhere is this more starkly demonstrated than in the levels of contact that Indigenous Australians have with the criminal justice system, particularly the police. Utilizing a linked dataset of extant criminal justice, human and health service administrative data in New South Wales (NSW) Australia, this paper explores patterns of police contact and custody for a cohort of Indigenous males with complex needs. Four significant factors are identified that alone or in combination appear to impact on the frequency with which these men experience police contact and custody, including young age at first police contact, experiencing out of home care as a child, alcohol misuse, and limited locational mobility. Whilst it might be expected that the presence of mental ill-health and/or cognitive disability would be a key predictor of the frequency and intensity of police contact and custody, the findings suggest rather that the presence of multiple disadvantages beginning in the early years and compounding throughout individuals' lives, in which mental illness may or may not be a factor, is more significant than the presence of any one diagnosis in precipitating police contact and custody for this group.     

Why Emotions Matter: Expectancy Violation and Affective Response Mediate the Emotional Victim Effect

The mechanisms behind the ‘emotional victim effect’ (i.e., that the emotionality of a rape victim’s demeanor affects perceived credibility) are relatively unexplored. In this article, a previously neglected mechanism—observers’ affective response to the victim—is proposed as an alternative to the traditional expectancy-violation account. The emotional victim effect was replicated in an experiment with a sample of police trainees (N = 189), and cognitive load was found to increase the magnitude of the effect. Importantly, both compassionate affective response and expectancy violation actively mediated the emotional victim effect when the other mechanism was controlled for. These findings extend previous research on credibility judgments by introducing a ‘hot’ cognitive component in the judgment process. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

The relation between interviewers’ personal characteristics and investigative interview performance in a child sexual abuse context

Despite important progress in knowledge about interview ‘best practice’ with child victims, few studies had yet evaluated the impact of interviewers’ personal characteristics on adherence to these ‘best practice’. This study was designed to determine whether interviewers’ personal characteristics are associated with adherence to a structured interview protocol (National Institute of Child and Human Development), the use of open-ended questions and the amount of details provided in children’s responses during investigative interviews with alleged victims of child sexual abuse. 114 interviews were scored from 13 police investigators after they followed a one-week training program. Results showed that experience, emotional intelligence, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness and Neuroticism were related with adherence to the protocol and ratio of open-ended questions. Cognitive abilities were related to the amount of details obtained from the child. Generalized estimating equations were used to compare relative contribution of each variable. These findings raise questions about how investigative interviewers are selected and trained.     

When an Alibi Is Not Enough: Judgments of Evidence Needed to Lay Charges in a Burglary Case

Laypersons were asked to assume the role of investigators to explore judgments of what evidence is needed to make an arrest in a criminal investigation when an alibi witness is present. Participants were sensitive to the relationship between the alibi witness and the suspect and were more likely to believe an alibi provided by someone unrelated to the suspect, as evidenced by requests for more physical evidence against the suspect than when the alibi corroborator was a family member. In addition, when presented with contradictory evidence, the age of the alibi witness became an important consideration. Age alone did not impact perceptions of evidence adequacy; however, when an (adult) eyewitness provided testimony that contradicted a child alibi witness, participants demonstrated partiality towards believing the child as evidenced by (a) more requests for physical evidence to be convinced the child was wrong and to arrest the suspect and (b) higher ratings of alibi witness credibility. This effect was not seen when the eyewitness’s testimony contradicted an alibi provided by an adult. The results provide insight for investigators and legal counsel regarding the influence of varying types of alibi witness evidence.     

A comparison of the ability of experts and non-experts to differentiate between adult and child human bite marks using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis

Fifty colour prints of human bite marks were sent to 109 observers who were asked to decide using a six point rating scale, whether the marks had been produced by the teeth of an adult or a child. The observers consisted of accredited senior forensic dentists, accredited junior forensic dentists, general dental practitioners, final year dental students, police officers and social workers. The results were compared against a “gold standard” which was the actual verdict from the case. Comparison of the results between the groups of observers and the standard was made using Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) methodology. The best decisions were made by senior/junior experts or final year dental students. General dental practitioners and police officers were least able to differentiate correctly between adult and child bite marks. The effect of training is important and its effects need to be assessed in more detail in future studies.     

Patterns of childhood sexual abuse characteristics and their relationships to other childhood abuse and adult health

The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to cluster women who experienced childhood sexual abuse (CSA) according to their shared patterns of CSA characteristics and (b) to examine differences across clusters on measures of other childhood abuse and adult health. Seven CSA characteristic variables were used for cluster analysis. The seven-cluster solution that emerged ranged from a noncontact extrafamilial CSA cluster that occurred without force only once to the most severe clusters in which penetration by an intrafamilial or extrafamilial abuser occurred multiple times with force. Significant differences among clusters were found for childhood emotional abuse and physical abuse, adult physical and psychosocial symptomatology, and depression. There were no significant differences for health care utilization. The results promote further understanding of which victims of CSA are more likely to have experienced other forms of childhood abuse and which victims are more at risk for poor health in adulthood.     

Variation in the perception of desired qualities of police officers among trainees and senior police officers. Insights into the process and efficacy of police training

Police training is the process of imparting knowledge, skills, and values to police personnel. The study analyses a survey data on the perception of trainees and senior experienced officers regarding desired professional qualities in police officers. There is a high degree of congruence, in the assessment of values which are important for police, among the two groups. There are also differences among the two groups regarding the evaluation of the importance of interpersonal skills and human qualities. The study attempts to explain the similarities and the differences in perception by examining the conservative and innovative nature of police training, and the role of experience in developing an appreciation of human qualities. The study underlines the importance of police training as a mechanism to maintain the stability of operations in the organisation and its pivotal role in bringing about change in the police.     

Public and family support and concerns for providing DNA to law enforcement in long-term missing person cases

The identification of long-term missing persons and unidentified human remains is a global challenge. Many people stay on missing persons registers, with unidentified human remains stored for extended periods in mortuaries around the world. Research exploring public and/or family support for providing DNA in long-term missing persons cases is scarce. The aims of this study were to examine whether trust in police predicted the level of support for providing DNA and explore public/family support and concerns for providing DNA in such cases. Trust in police was measured through two widely used empirical attitude scales; “The Measures of Police Legitimacy and Procedural Justice”. Support and concerns for giving DNA were measured through four hypothetical missing persons case scenarios. The results showed more positive attitudes towards police legitimacy and procedural justice significantly predicted support, with the percentage level of positive support across the four case types as follows: cases involving a long-term missing child (89%), elderly adult with dementia (83%), young adult with a history of runaway (76%), with the lowest level of support for an adult with an estranged family (73%). Participants also reported more concerns about providing DNA when the missing person circumstances involved family estrangement. Understanding levels of public/family support and concerns around providing DNA to police in missing persons cases is vital to ensure that DNA collection practices reflect what the public/family support and, wherever possible, alleviate public concerns.     

Patient Profiles of Criminal Behavior in the Context of Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can lead to significant post‐traumatic disturbances in mood and behavior, with the frontal lobes playing a key role in emotional and behavioral regulation. Injury to the frontal lobe can result in disinhibition and aggression which can result in police intervention and/or incarceration. We highlight four adult cases with a history of severe TBI with frontal lobe injuries and the presence of post‐TBI criminal behaviors. There is evidence to support an anatomical basis for aggressive behaviors, yet there are other risk factors to be considered. Behaviors must be investigated thoroughly by obtaining adequate pre‐ and post‐TBI psychiatric and psychosocial histories. By having a comprehensive understanding of aggression while appreciating the complex relationship between TBI, aggression, and premorbid risk factors, clinicians can more adequately treat patients with TBI, with the aim of potentially preventing criminal behaviors and recidivism.     

Families of Origin,Foster Care Experience,and the Transition to Adulthood

The rising number of young adults transitioning to adulthood from the foster care system has been a focus of prior research. The current study explored foster care youths transitions to adulthood to identify factors that contribute to or inhibit prosocial adult outcomes. Structured data derived from interviews with foster care‐experienced adults and child welfare professionals as well as focus groups with foster care‐experienced adults and foster parents were analyzed using content analysis to examine the transition to adulthood from foster care. Positive or negative life outcomes resulted from two key mechanisms: a) issues related to family of origin (inadequate parenting, abuse); and b) foster care experiences (including a pattern of “drift”). We explore disidentification, a new social psychological concept. Throughout, key players provide policy recommendations for the child welfare system.     

The Impact of the Registered Intermediary on Adults’ Perceptions of Child Witnesses: Evidence from a Mock Cross Examination

Registered intermediaries are communication specialists appointed to facilitate the communication of vulnerable witnesses participating in the criminal justice system in England and Wales. Intermediaries assess the vulnerable individual’s communication and provide recommendations to practitioners for how to obtain the individual’s ‘best evidence’ during police interviews and in court. The scheme was implemented nationally in 2008, but has not been subject to rigorous research. The aim of the current article is to provide an account on adults’ perceptions of the vulnerable individual when an intermediary assists their communication in court. In the present study 100 participants viewed a mock cross examination of a child witness either with or without an intermediary present. Participants rated the child’s behaviour and communication, and the quality of the cross examination, across a number of different variables. The age of the child was also manipulated with participants viewing a cross examination of a four or a 13 year old child. The results showed the children’s behaviour and the quality of the cross-examination were more highly rated when the intermediary was involved during cross-examination. The older child’s cross-examination was rated as more developmentally appropriate, however no other age differences or interactions emerged. The findings have positive implications for jury perceptions of children’s testimony when they are assisted by an intermediary in court, regardless of the age of the child witness. The success of the intermediary scheme in England and Wales may encourage the implementation of intermediaries internationally.     

Public's and police officers' interpretation and handling of domestic violence cases: divergent realities

The public's and police officers'interpretation and handling of realistic hypothetical domestic violence cases and their stereotypic views about domestic violence are discussed. A sample of 131 experienced officers, 127 novice officers, and 157 adult laypersons were randomly assigned to read a domestic violence case. Experienced officers were more likely to arrest only the husband than were laypersons or rookie officers even when respondents inferred that the husband was primarily responsible or had used violence before. Experienced officers considered their stereotypic beliefs about battered women's propensity to use self-defense in arriving at their arrest decision whereas laypersons and rookie officers did not. These findings indicate that the public and police officers have not adopted the feminists' message that arrest is the best response to handle all domestic violence cases. Policy implications are discussed.     

Assessing the Psychological Well-being and Coping Mechanisms of Law Enforcement Investigators vs. Digital Forensic Examiners of Child Pornography Investigations

Previous research indicates law enforcement investigators and digital forensic examiners working child exploitation cases are at an increased risk for experiencing psychological distress; however, the roles of digital forensic examiners and investigators often overlap substantially when working child pornography cases. Thus, the current study was the first to compare the psychological well-being, job satisfaction, coping mechanisms, and attitudes toward mental health services for individuals working as either digital forensic examiners and/or investigators of child pornography cases. Law enforcement officers were solicited from the Internet Crimes Against Children task force listserv, and based on their current self-reported duties, 20 were classified as digital forensic examiners-only, 71 as investigators-only, and 38 as both digital forensic examiners and investigators of cases involving Internet child pornography. Results showed significant differences between groups; individuals performing both duties scored significantly higher on secondary traumatic stress, higher on feelings of worthlessness, and lower on concentration compared to digital forensic examiners-only. Individuals performing both duties also reported significantly lower scores on job satisfaction compared to investigators-only. Finally, individuals working both duties were significantly more likely to know someone who sought counseling as a result of work-related stress. The study’s mental health implications and future research suggestions are discussed.     

An examination of the questioning styles of police officers and caregivers when interviewing children with intellectual disabilities

Purpose. This research provided a detailed analysis of the types of questions and verbal strategies used by police officers and caregivers when interviewing children with intellectual disabilities about events. Method. Twenty eight children aged 9 to 13 years with a mild or moderate intellectual disability participated in a staged event at their school. Each child was then interviewed on separate occasions by the child's primary caregiver and by a police officer who was authorized to conduct investigative interviews with children. Results. While the approach used by the police officers was broadly consistent with best‐practice recommendations (i.e. their interviews contained few leading, coercive or negative strategies), they frequently interrupted the child's account and used relatively few minimal encouragers and other strategies designed to keep the child talking. The caregivers used a high proportion of direct, leading and coercive strategies to elicit information from their children. Even when caregivers used open‐ended questions, their children provided less event‐related information than they did to the police interviewers. Conclusion. The quality of evidence obtained from children with intellectual disabilities is likely to be dependent (albeit in part) on the degree to which police interviewers adhere to best‐practice guidelines, as well as the children's general experience with an open‐ended style of communication.     

Optimism as a Mediator Between the Experience of Child Abuse,Other Traumatic Events,and Distress

In this study, we examined the role of dispositional optimism in mediating distress among students who experienced traumatic events, including child physical abuse, emotional abuse, and sexual abuse. Participants included 199 undergraduate and graduate students (aged 18–63 years) from a private university in Oregon. In this study, dispositional optimism partially mediated distress among individuals who had experienced child physical abuse and child emotional abuse; participants with higher levels of optimism had lower levels of distress. In addition, dispositional optimism fully mediated distress among individuals who had experienced traumatic events such as rape, assault, and fire; participants with higher levels of optimism had lower levels of distress. Contrary to prediction, the experience of child sexual abuse was not associated with distress. Clinical implications of these results are addressed.     

The cognitive interview: An innovative technique for questioning witnesses of crime

Conclusions Historically, little training has been available for investigators on interviewing witnesses and victims, but the critiques of both laboratory and field interviews indicate that current standard interview techniques can be improved considerably through training. The results of each of the studies reported here confirm that cognitive interviewing reliably enhances the completeness of a witness's recollection, and without increasing the number of incorrect or confabulated bits of information generated. Based on the examination of several interviews, a revision of the original Cognitive Interview was made, which was found further to enhance the quality of witness reports. The procedures are easy to learn and can be readily adopted in routine police interview procedures. In fact, the Cognitive Interview currently is in use as standard training at several police departments and at other law enforcement agencies. Further information regarding the Cognitive Interview technique and training programs for investigators can be obtained from either of the authors.