Parents' and teachers' beliefs about adolescents: Effects of sex and experience

Three studies examine beliefs that parents and teachers have about adolescents. A distinction is made between category-based beliefs (concerning adolescents as a group) and target-based beliefs (concerning individual adoles cents). In Study 1, 90 late elementary and junior high school teachers indicated degree of agreement with a set of category-based statements about adolescents. Parents of early adolescents in Study 2 (N=1272) responded to category- and target-based statements. Study 3 compares the responses of teachers in Study 1 and parents in Study 2. Both teachers and parents endorsed beliefs that adolescence is difficult, and that adults can have an impact. Compared to fathers, mothers believed more in difficulty and in the negative effects of biological change on behavior. Parents of daughters believed adolescence is more difficult than parents of sons. Among teachers, amount of experience with adolescents was positively associated with the belief that adolescence is a difficult period of life. For parents, the effect of amount of experience was mixed. Experience had a greater impact on the category-based beliefs of teachers than parents. Possible influences on the origins and modification of beliefs are discussed.Received Ph.D. in psychology from The University of Michigan. Research interests: adolescent development, effects of pubertal development on social development, hormones and behavior in early adolescence, and family processesCurrently on leave from The University of Michigan. Received Ph.D. in psychology from the University of California at Los Angeles. Research interests: development of self-concept, subjective task value, interests, and activity preferences, especially during early and middle adolescence. Dr. Eccles is also investigating the impact of school and family experiences on these constructs.Received Ph.D. in psychology from The University of Michigan. Research interests: the impact 6f family stress on adolescent development and family decision-making practices.Received Ph.D. in educatiqn from The University of Michigan. Research interests: adolescent development, middle years education, teacher beliefs, and classroom processes.Received M. A. in education from the University of Michigan. Research interests: adolescent development, classroom environments, and supporting beginning teachers.Received Ph.D. in social work and psychology from The University of Michigan. Research interests: family processes and development.Portions of this paper were presented at the 1987 biennial meetings of the Society for Research in Child Development. This research was made possible by grants from the National Institute of Mental Health (MH31724-04, -05) to Jacquelynne S. Eccles, and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD17296-01, -02, -03,S1) to Jacquelynne S. Eccles.     

Indicators of rural youth drug use

The relationships between personal substance use, health beliefs, peer use, sex, and religion were examined using data collected from 265 middle school students in rural northern Michigan and northeastern Wisconsin in January and February 1984. A positive correlation between peer and personal drug use was established. A relationship was also found between health beliefs and personal substance use. In addition, a regression model was able to account for a statistically significant amount of the variance of alcohol, marihuana, and cigarette use in the target population. Recommendations are made concerning future research, methods of improving health education program development, and possible target areas for psychotherapy.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 1985 annual meeting of the American Public Health Association, Washington, DC.Received Ph.D. in Health Education from The University of Michigan. Research interests include program evaluation, measurement, and community health education.Received Ed.D. in Health Education from Wayne State University. Research interests include school health, international health, and program evaluation.     

Antecedents of adolescent initiation into stages of drug use: A developmental analysis

The social psychological antecedents of entry into three sequential stages of adolescent drug use, hard liquor, marihuana, and other illicit drugs, are examined in a cohort of high school students in which the population at risk for initiation into each stage could be clearly specified. The analyses are based on a two-wave panel sample of New York State public secondary students and subsamples of matched adolescent-parent and adolescent-best schoolfriend dyads. Each of four clusters of predictor variables, parental influences, peer influences, adolescent involvement in various behaviors, and adolescent beliefs and values, and single predictors within each cluster assume differential importance for each stage of drug behavior. Prior involvement in a variety of activities, such as minor delinquency and use of cigarettes, beer, and wine are most important for hard liquor use. Adolescents' beliefs and values favorable to the use of marihuana and association with marihuana-using peers are the strongest predictors of initiation into marihuana. Poor relations with parents, feelings of depression, and exposure to drug-using peers are most important for initiation into illicit drugs other than marihuana.This research is supported by Grant DA-00064 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse and by the Center for Socio-Cultural Research on Drug Use of Columbia University.Revised version of a paper presented at the Conference on Strategies of Longitudinal Research on Drug Use, San Juan, Puerto Rico, April 1976. Authors' names are listed alphabetically.Received Ph.D. in sociology from Columbia University in 1960. Current research interests are adolescent socialization, longitudinal approaches to the study of human behavior and psychopathology, and processes of interpersonal influence.Received Ph.D. in sociology from New York University in 1975. Major interest is quantitative sociology.Received Ph.D. in sociology from Columbia University in 1975. Current research interests include adolescent socialization and deviant behavior.     

School crime and disruption as a function of student-school fit: An empirical assessment

A theoretical model is described which conceptualizes school crime and disruption as a function of the congruence or fit between the personal characteristics of students and the social environments of the schools they attend. In a direct empirical test of the model, indices representing 10 distinct dimensions of student-school fit are related to three composite measures of school misconduct: school crime, school avoidance, and class misbehavior. A number of significant relationships are found between dimensions of student-school fit and the three indices of school misbehavior, several of which manifest one of the nonlinear forms specified by the model, providing at least modest support for a person-environment fit theory of school crime and disruption.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting of the Society for the Study of Social Problems, San Francisco, September 1978. Analyses reported here were supported by a research grant (G-78-0049) from the National Institute of Education.Received Ph.D. in social psychology from the University of Michigan. Current research interests include alienation and involvement in high school, person-environment fit, and survey methodology.Current research interests include the development and treatment of aggressive and deviant behavior in adolescence and socialization experiences in high school.Received Ph.D. in personality psychology from the University of Michigan. Current research interests include adolescent self-esteem, delinquent behavior, and alternative schools.     

The factor structure of the Reckless Behavior Questionnaire

In this study, the relative fits of three different factor-structure models of adolescent reckless behavior were examined using the Reckless Behavior Questionnaire (RBQ) with individual samples of college and high school students. Both one- and two-factor models were found to be satisfactory representations of the RBQ with both samples. In order to test the construct validity of the one- and two-factor models, relations between instruments generally associated with reckless behavior were examined by gender. Using the two-factor model, gender differences were found for both the college and high school samples; thus, it was determined to be the more parsimonious fit of the data given previous research supporting gender differences. Findings are discussed in terms of current conceptualizations of factor patterns of adolescent problem behavior and implications for future investigations.B.A. from Oberlin College, and M.A. and Ph.D. in Psychology from University of Virginia. Research interests are development of aggression and correlates of reckless behavior.B.A. from University of Akron and M.S. from University of Pittsburgh. Research interests are addictive behaviors and psychopathology in adolescence.Formerly Assistant Professor at Ogelthorpe University (1985–1988). Received B.S. from Michigan State University, and M.A. and Ph.D. from University of Virginia. Research interest is development of reckless behavior.Received B.A. from Yale University, and M.A. and Ph.D. from University of Virginia. Research interests are developmental psychopathology and adolescence.     

Sex differences within the family: Studies of adolescent and parent family interactions

Sex differences in verbal family interactions were investigated in a group of 79 adolescents and parents from normal and psychiatric settings. The analyses were designed to study these differences in both generations, parent and adolescent. Parent and adolescent interactions with one another were observed in a semistructured, revealed-differences family discussion. All of the individual speeches were then scored with our Constraining and Enabling Coding System (CECS). Initial predictions involved both adolescent and parent differences. These hypotheses were only partially confirmed. The strongest findings pertained to parent sex differences, as we found strikingly higher levels of cognitive enabling speeches expressed by fathers and significantly more speeches addressed to fathers. We discuss several alternative interpretations of these findings. Perspectives included in our considerations are direction of effect and influences of task/context upon the expression of family sex differences.This study was supported through a grant from the National Institute of Child and Human Development (NICHD Grant No. R01 HD18684-02) and a Research Scientist Development Award No. 5 K-02-MH-70178 (Dr. Hauser) from the NIMH.Received M.D. from Yale University and Ph.D. from Harvard University (psychology). Currently studying family contexts of adolescent development.Received B.A. from Michigan University. Currently graduate student in organizational behavior, Northwestern University. Current interests are women and work.Received his Ph.D. from Boston University. Research interests are in methodology and statistics.Henry A. Murray Research Center of Radcliffe College. Received Ed. D. from Harvard University (School of Education). Currently studying family coping processes in response to stressful events.Received Ph.D. from Ohio State University (psychology). Current interests in assessing ego development and family systems.Parent-Place, Judge Baker Guidance Center. Received Ph.D. from the University of Miami (clinical psychology). Research interests are in family studies and adolescent development.Received M.D. from the University of Chicago. Currently studying psychological consequences of diabetes mellitus.the Children's Unit of McLean Hospital. Received Diploma Psych. from Freie Universitat, Berlin (clinical psychology), and Ed.D. from Harvard University (School of Education). Currently studying relationships between psychopathology and development among adolescent psychiatric patients.     

Student teachers' perceptions of the identity formation process

Student teachers were asked to respond to profiles of various styles of dealing with adolescent identity issues. Student teachers responded most favorably to the profile indicating adolescent exploration of occupational and ideological alternatives (Moratorium) and least favorably to an apparent nonconcern with adolescent issues (Diffuse). Commitment to plans and beliefs with closedness to alternatives (Foreclosure) received intermediate evaluations. Consistent with Eriksonian notions, but at variance with empirical findings, the Moratorium style was rated highest in psychological health. Student teachers preferred the Moratorium-style individual as prospective students; the Diffuse-style one the least. Implications for teacher training and educational practice were examined, and areas of further research were outlined.Funding for this project was received from a grant by the Faculty of Education, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.He received his Ph.D. in Educational Psychology from the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto. Research interests include adolescent personality development and teacher training.His Ph.D. was received from the University of Oklahoma in Experimental Social Psychology. Current research interests include varied aspects of consumer behavior with focus upon the effects of credit card stimuli upon consumer behavior.He received his Ph.D. in Educational Psychology from the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto. Research interests focus upon special education and learning disabilities.     

Adolescents' experience of a life-framing decision

High school students participating in a year-long longitudinal study of the college decision-making process described their experiences in open-ended essays, and rated their reactions to the process on several different Likert scales. Students' certainty in the decision and readiness to make a decision rose over time. As the process continued, students reported increasing satisfaction with the information they had obtained, and more comfort with the process itself. However, overall levels of reported enjoyment of the process were low to moderate, and overall ratings of the stressfulness of the decision remained high. Students gave evidence of seeing this decision as a life-framing one.This project was funded by The Spencer Foundation and by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD-28177-R15), both to Kathleen M. Galotti. We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Stephanie Aubry, Jessica Bresler, Laura Gibson, Julie Greene, Ruby Hou, Perrin Klumpp, Jodi Matthes, Jennifer McGregor, Nancy Michelsen, Terrance Overby, Amy Prullage, Melissa Schneider, Katherine Seiden, Daniel Simons, and Meghan Wilhelm for gathering and coding data. We also thank the principals, guidance counselors, and teachers at the cooperating schools for helping us recruits students and schedule surveys.Received a Ph.D. in psychology and an M.S.E. in computer and information sciences from the University of Pennsylvania. Current research interests include everyday reasoning and decision making, and the development of these skills.Received a Ph.D. in counseling and guidance from the University of Wisconsin, Madison. Research interests are in adolescent development and adolescent psychopathology.     

The Development of Stereotypes About the Rich and Poor: Age,Race, and Family Income Differences in Beliefs

African American and European American 4th, 6th, and 8th graders rated the competence of rich and poor children in academics (i.e., math, science, reading, writing, school grades, smartness), sports, and music. In contrast to middle school students, 4th graders favored the rich in all 3 domains. Youth of both races reported that the rich were more competent in academics than the poor; these beliefs were especially pronounced among Black youth. White, older, and more affluent students favored the poor in sports, whereas their counterparts either favored the rich or were egalitarian. No interactions were found between grade and race or grade and family income. The implications of these beliefs for policy and identity development theory are discussed. Doctoral student at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Research interests include the influence of race identity, race socialization, and stereotypes on the academic achievement of African American youth. Associate Professor at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Received Ph.D. in Psychology at the University of Notre Dame. Her research specialty is the development of children's achievement-related beliefs. Assistant Professor at the University of Michigan. Received Ph.D. from the University of Virginia. Research interests include predictors of academic self-views in children and adolescents.     

Phenomenological aspects of psychosocial maturity in adolescence. Part I. Boys

This paper explores the phenomenological and psychodynamic differences between adolescent boys who score at the high and low extremes of the Psychosocial Maturity Inventory. The development of psychosocial maturity is viewed against the background of adolescent ego development. The freedom from impulse, the gains in self-esteem, the resolution of sexual identity, and the growth of autonomy that are the outcomes of the adolescent process all contribute to a higher degree of individual and social adequacy. The growth of heterosexuality, however, is shown to have a complex and nonlinear relationship to psychosocial maturity.Preparation of this paper was supported by funds from the National Institute of Education, Contract No. NE-C-00-3-0013.Received Ph. D. in psychology from the University of Michigan. Main research interests: psychology of adolescence and psychology of women.Received Ph.D. in clinical psychology from Radcliffe College. Main interest: personality development from childhood through adolescence.Main interest: Evaluation methodology.For a complete discussion, see Greenberger and Sørensen (1974).     

School-based health services for urban adolescents: Psychosocial characteristics of clinic users vs nonusers

Evaluated psychosocial differences between adolescent users and nonusers of an urban school-based health clinic, considering the influence of gender. As expected, a number of gender differences were found (e.g., girls reported more fear, were rated as more likeable by peers than boys). Examination of differences based purely on clinic use indicated that nonusers were rated as more socially withdrawn by their peers than clinic users; otherwise, these two groups did not differ on psychosocial measures. Gender by clinic-status interaction effects were found for academic measures (e.g., nonusing boys had more absences and lower grades than boys who used the clinic). A group of intensive clinic users (n=14) reported higher levels of emotional distress than other students, and surprisingly, most of these students were not receiving mental health services.Received Ph.D. from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in 1991. Research interests include evaluation of school mental health services, empirical development of interventions for children, and the impact of violence on urban youth.Received B.A. from Loyola College. Interested in applied work with adolescents and adults.Received B.A. from Cornell University. Interests include stress and coping in children, identification of resilience factors, and evaluation of child mental health systems of care.Received Ph.D. from the University of Oklahoma in 1967. Research interests in psychophysiology, sleep disorders, and biofeedback and instrumentation.Received M.D. from Duke University in 1968. Research interests include training in child and adolescent psychiatry, adolescent psychopathology, and the development of school mental health programs.     

Consistency of adolescents' self-report of sexual behavior in a longitudinal study

This study examines three issues relevant to adolescent self-reported sexual behavior: the extent to which adolescents rescind reports of sexual intercourse, changes in reporting of lifetime sexual intercourse, and changes in reported age at first sexual intercourse. Data come from a three-year longitudinal study of health-compromising behaviors among a cohort a 758 rural adolescents. Students completed a self-administered questionnaire on health behaviors annually in eighth, ninth, and tenth grades. Findings show that 88.8% of students in eighth grade and 94.3% in ninth grade who reported having had sexual intercourse gave the same answer in a subsequent year. Approximately 15% of students reported fewer numbers of lifetime sexual intercourse experiences in tenth grade than they did in ninth grade. Age at first sexual intercourse was reported inconsistently by 67% of the students. Inconsistency rates differed by racial-gender groups, question sensitivity, and prior sexual experience.Received Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins University. Research interests include adolescent health and early adolescent development.Received Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins University. Research interests include personality, stress, and coping.Received Ph.D. from University of Chicago. Research interests include adolescent delinquency and substance use.Received Dr. P.H. from Johns Hopkins University. Research interests include rural adolescents and international health issues.Received Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins University. Research interests include adolescent sexuality and contraceptive decision making.     

Parenting factors,social skills,and value commitments as precursors to school failure,involvement with deviant peers,and delinquent behavior

Elements of social control theory were combined with social learning theory to construct a model of delinquency which specifies the manner in which parenting factors, social skills, value commitments, and problems in school contribute to association with deviant peers and involvement in delinquent behavior. The model was tested using a sample of 61 families, each of which included a seventh grader. Questionnaire responses and coded videotaped family interaction were employed as measures of study constructs. The results largely supported the proposed model.This work was supported by Research Grants DA 05347 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse, MH 43270 from the National Institute of Mental Health, and MCJ 190572 from the Bureau of Maternal and Child Health, Department of Health and Human Services.Received Ph.D. in sociology from Florida State University. Research interests: etiology of adolescent depression, substance abuse, and delinquency; identification of factors that influence parenting practices; causes and consequences of adolescent and adult homelessness.Received Ph.D. in sociology from Washington State University. Research interests: impact of family and peers upon adolescent value socialization, self-esteem, and perceptions of self-efficacy; street culture among adolescent runaways and adult homeless.Received Ph.D. in sociology from the University of Washington. Research interests: impacft of economic stress upon family dynamics, and relationship between parenting practices and adolescent developmental outcomes.Doctoral candidate in sociology at Iowa State University. Research interests: economic hardship and marital interaction, and determinants and consequences of variation in sibling interaction.     

Family contexts of pubertal timing

This study examined the influence of pubertal timing upon family interactions in normal and psychiatric adolescent samples. An important feature of our approach is its emphasis upon micro-analysis of family behaviors (individual speeches) and family processes (theoretically specified speech pairings). Rather than assume that global family patterns (e.g., power) shift in response to pubertal changes, we follow how types of speeches and speech sequences are associated with different pubertal timing. Using the previously constructed family coding system, the Constrainig and Enabling Coding System, we found that on-time adolescents and their parents differed from both off-time groups (early or late). These results are discussed in terms of current implications and suggestions for future research.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the SRCD Study Group on Timing of Maturation, October, 1983, at the Education Testing Service, Princeton, NJ. This research was supported by NICHD Grant 1 R01 HD18684-01, and an NIMH Research Scientist Award (Dr. Hauser).Received his Ph.D. from Harvard University. Research interest is adolescent development within the family and impact of chronic illness on adolescent development and family interaction.Received her B.A. from Wellesley College. Research interests are in humor and attractiveness.Received his M.A. from Boston University. Research interests are in methodology and statistics.Received Ed.D. from Harvard University. Research interests are in adolescent development within the family, and family coping with stress.Received M.D. from University of Chicago. Research interests are in psychosocial aspects of diabetes.Received Ed.D. from Harvard University. Research interests are in developmental psychopathology, and moral and ego development.Received Ph.D. from Ohio State University. Research interests are in assessment of ego development and family systems.Received Ph.D. from University of Miami. Research interests are in family studies and adolescent development.     

Phenomenological aspects of psychosocial maturity in adolescence. Part II. Girls

This paper explores the phenomenological and psychodynamic differences between girls who score at the high and low extremes of the Psychosocial Maturity Inventory. Ability to tolerate anxiety and the developmental use of interpersonal relationships are discussed as central to identity formation among these girls.Preparation of this paper was supported by funds from the National Institute of Education Contract No. NE-C-00-3-0013.Received her Ph.D. in psychology from the University of Michigan. Main research interests are psychology of adolescence and psychology of women.Received her Ph.D. in clinical psychology from Radcliffe College. Main interest is personality development from childhood through adolescence.Main interest: Evaluation methodology.     

Adolescents' Participation in Service Activities and Its Impact on Academic,Behavioral, and Civic Outcomes

The National Household Education Survey, a nationally representative data set (N=4,306 high school students and one parent of each), was analyzed to describe characteristics of adolescents, the nature of their service activities, and academic, behavioral and civic outcomes associated with service (voluntary compared to school-required and by type of service). Participation in any service is associated with positive outcomes whether service is voluntary or required. Adolescents who worked directly with individuals in need had better academic adjustment; those who worked for organizations had better civic outcomes than adolescents who performed other types of service. Findings are discussed in terms of their significance for adolescent development, educational policy, and the use of large national data sets to examine service participation. Assistant Professor of Educational Psychology at Northern Illinois University. She received her Ph.D. in Psychology: Human Development from the University of Chicago. Her research interests include motivation, resilience, and positive youth development. Professor at Northern Illinois University. She received her Ph.D. in Educational Psychology from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Her research interests include family, community, and out-of-school influences on child and adolescent educational adjustment. Received her M.S. Ed. in Educational Psychology from Northern Illinois University, where she is currently pursuing her doctoral degree. Her current research interests involve the role of adolescents' family, community and school contexts in fostering their social, moral, and educational development.     

From trust on intimacy: A new inventory for examining erikson's stages of psychosocial development

A new inventory for examining the first six of Erikson's psychosocial stages is described. The self-report questionnaire, developed in a pilot study of 97 adolescents and tested in a study of 622 adolescents, has 12 items for each subscale. Measures of reliability and validity are reported. It is concluded that the Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory (EPSI) is a useful measure for researchers interested in development from early adolescence and in mapping changes as a function of life events.This research was supported by a grant from the Education Research and Development Committee.Received Ph.D. from University of Melbourne. Current research interests are adolescent adjustment, ethnicity, and sex-role psychology.Received Ph.D. from University of Melbourne. Current research interests are effects of unemployment and adolescent adjustment.Received Ph.D. from Florida State University. Current research interests are sex-role psychology and adolescence.     

The influence of paternal substance abuse and difficult temperament in fathers and sons on sons' disengagement from family to deviant peers

This study was undertaken to examine the relative contribution of paternal history of substance abuse and difficult temperament in fathers and sons on a panel of individual, family, and interpersonal risk factors shown to be associated with deviant peer affiliations among boys. Deviant peer affiliations among boys have been associated with development of a conduct disorder and early age substance use. In a sample of sons of substance abusing fathers (n =56) and normal fathers (n=94), a structural equation path analysis revealed that the conjoint influence of paternal history of substance abuse and difficult temperament in fathers and sons influenced family and interpersonal processes that, in turn, influenced the developmental trajectory of the child toward deviant peer affiliations. The full model (F=74.49, p<.001, Stability Index=0.70) explained 50% of the variance on sons' Peer Delinquency Scale scores. Implications for primary prevention are discussed.Supported by the Center for Education and Drug Abuse Research (CEDAR), Pittsburgh, PA. Funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (No. DA 05605) and ROIs DA08540 and AA09985 to the first author. CEDAR is a consortium between St. Francis Medical Center and the University of Pittsburgh.Received Ph.D. from University of Pittsburgh. Research interests include temperament, parent-child relationships, peer affiliations, and drug and alcohol abuse.Received Ph.D. from University of Oklahoma. Research interests include etiology and vulnerability to substance abuse.Received Ph.D. from Queens University. Research interests include the etiology of conduct disorder.Received Ph.D. from University of Pittsburgh. Research interests include social environment risk factors for substance abuse.Received Ph.D. from Penn State University. Research interests include temperament and substance abuse.     

Factors related to cigarette smoking during adolescent pregnancy

Previous research suggests that maternal smoking during pregnancy remains prevalent, particularly among adolescents. However, little is known about the factors related to smoking during adolescent pregnancy. The goal of the present study is to identify intrapersonal, familial, and peer factors that are related to smoking during adolescent pregnancy, and to determine the relative degree to which they affect this behavior. Interviews were conducted with 241 unmarried pregnant adolescents who planned to carry their pregnancies to term. Consistent with previous studies, 27% of the respondents reported daily smoking during pregnancy, and whites reported higher rates of use than members of other racial groups. Smoking during adolescent pregnancy was related to intrapersonal, familial, and peer factors. The results of a regression analysis suggest that perceived parental disapproval of smoking during pregnancy, friends' cigarette use, and race play a particularly important role in this behavior. The implications of these findings for preventive programs are discussed.Research reported here and the preparation of this report were supported by Grant DA-05208 from the National Institute on Drug Abuse.Received M.A. in sociology from the University of Washington. Research interests include health behaviors, and the relationship between social stratification and health.Received Ph.D. in social welfare from the University of Washington. Research interests are in adolescent development, gender issues in adolescent development, and health promotion and problem prevention with children and adolescents. Received Ph.D. in sociology from the University of Washington. Research interests are adolescent problem behaviors, and particularly adolescent sexual decision making.Received M.S. in educational psychology from the University of Wisconsin—Madison. Research interests: adolescent substance use, pregnancy and parenthood, and peer relations.     

Identity status in high school students: Critique and a revised paradigm

The validity of applying the Marcia identity status paradigm to study of high school students is examined. Uncritical categorization of young adolescents into the identity statuses originally validated upon university students raises various issues. A revised paradigm for study of identity style among high school students is presented. It is suggested that the issues raised—the validity of measures for varying age groups and the role of environmental demands—are related to the eventual formulation of a life-span conceptualization of identity style.Received his Ph.D. from University of Toronto. Research interests are life-span developmental psychology and adolescent behavior.Received B. A. from the Northeastern Illinois University.