Myths and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Despite the fact that patients with mild traumatic brain injuries (TBI) are commonly encountered in clinical practice, there are numerous myths surrounding their diagnosis, assessment, and outcome. The purpose of this paper is to review some of the more common myths related to mild TBI including: (a) there is no Miserable Minority; (b) meta-analytic studies have proven that patients with mild TBI do not experience persistent deficits; (c) personality tests can reliably capture psychological problems in patients with a mild TBI; (d) findings from the sports concussion literature can be directly applied to clinical patients; and (e) in the absence of loss of consciousness, the diagnosis of a mild TBI is uncertain.     

Forensic Neuropsychology and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Over the last 20 years, the Courts and the legal community have increasingly relied on neuropsychologists to provide opinions, guidance, and expertise in the area of brain–behavior relationships. The purpose of this article is to review issues neuropsychologists commonly face when asked to evaluate cases with suspected mild traumatic brain injuries (TBI) in the civil or criminal legal context. In particular, we will discuss: (a) the neuropsychologist’s role in TBI forensic cases, (b) the attorney’s role in forensic TBI cases, (c) a neuropsychological framework to approach forensic mild TBI cases, (d) establishing working relationships with attorneys, (e) the Daubert and Frye standards, (f) symptom validity, (g) ethical issues, and (h) recommendations to improve the ecological validity of our tests and encourage test developers to provide alternate forms of tests.     

Functional Neuroimaging of Symptom Validity Testing in Traumatic Brain Injury

The Word Memory Test (WMT) is a commonly used symptom validity test (SVT) that assesses recognition verbal memory. The task has been adapted for use within a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) paradigm so the neural correlates of WMT activation patterns can be studied. In the current investigation, performance on the delayed recognition subtest of the WMT was examined in two patients who sustained severe TBI and compared to ten healthy controls. The patients underwent comprehensive neuropsychological evaluations and structural MRI. All participants completed two versions of the WMT: full-effort and simulated poor effort conditions. Despite extensive structural brain damage, the fMRI activation patterns during full-effort WMT performance were somewhat similar in the two TBI patients and likewise, somewhat similar to controls. The fMRI activation pattern in both patients demonstrated intact activation of the basic neural structures necessary to perform the WMT. Dissimilar patterns of activation were obtained during the simulated poor effort condition of WMT performance suggesting that fMRI techniques may be sensitive in demonstrating non-credible cognitive performance. The results of our study represent the first fMRI investigation of normal and simulated poor effort SVT performance in individuals with documented brain damage. The implications of fMRI techniques in SVT research and their clinical application are discussed.     

Nocebo Effects and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Legal Implications

Expectations may play a large role in health-related outcomes, but they may not be fully addressed or considered in medical–legal contexts. Contextual factors can influence a patient’s expectations for recovery following a concussion, including explicit or implicit messages from the media, healthcare providers and systems of care, and the forensic arena. This article discusses these factors as nocebo effects, that is, various inherently “inert” factors may create negative expectancies for recovery and therefore impede a given patient’s progress and recovery. It is argued that the negligence theory upon which the legal system is based tends to compound these nocebo effects. In accident-related concussions, both the accident itself and subsequent nocebo effects including potential healthcare and medical–legal provider negligence can create legal liability.     

轻度创伤性脑损伤脑脊液及血液生物标记物研究进展

轻度创伤性脑损伤(mild traumatic brain injury,MTBI)被认为是轻度脑损伤导致的短暂意识丧失和精神改变,但有时也会导致持久性、进行性的临床症状。MTBI可引起神经系统结构损伤及相应的体液生物标记物改变,但有关其严重程度及个体易感性与意识障碍持续时间的关联程度研究不足,同时,一次打击后脑损伤程度也缺乏可靠的评估方法。本文综述了与TBI有关的脑脊液及血液生物标记物,探讨这些标记物在MTBI诊断中的应用现状及研究前景,为法医学及临床医学中脑损伤的诊断及评估提供参考依据。     

Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Postconcussion Syndrome: The New Evidence Base for Diagnosis and Treatment

McCrea’s book makes an important contribution to our understanding of mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) and post-concussive syndrome (PCS). It offers an excellent review of studies over the past 5–10 years, particularly those in the area of sports medicine/concussion. The author has established a consensus definition of MTBI and best practice in the management and treatment of these patients, while forcing us to rethink the ‘true incidence’ of persistent PCS. There are a host of other conclusions, ideas for future research, and inaccuracies previously published in the literature that are clarified that will be helpful for clinicians working with this challenging patient population. The book is considered a scholarly contribution that most neuroscientists and clinicians who work with MTBI patients will find helpful. One limitation of the book as well as one lingering question that remains unanswered are discussed at the end of the review.     

Traumatic Brain Injury among Indiana State Prisoners

Research on traumatic brain injury among inmates has focused on comparing the rate of traumatic brain injury among offenders to the general population, but also how best to screen for traumatic brain injury among this population. This study administered the short version of the Ohio State University Traumatic Brain Injury Identification Method to all male inmates admitted into Indiana state prisons were screened for a month (N = 831). Results indicate that 35.7% of the inmates reported experiencing a traumatic brain injury during their lifetime and that these inmates were more likely to have a psychiatric disorder and a prior period of incarceration than those without. Logistic regression analysis finds that a traumatic brain injury predicts the likelihood of prior incarceration net of age, race, education, and psychiatric disorder. This study suggests that brief instruments can be successfully implemented into prison screenings to help divert inmates into needed treatment.     

Predictive Validity of the Neuropsychological Assessment Battery-Screening Module for Assessing Real-World Disability in Patients with Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

The present study set out to examine the ecological validity of the Neuropsychological Assessment Battery-Screening Module (NAB-S) and to examine more specifically, whether performance on this test battery is related to real-world disability status in patients who have sustained a mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) as a consequence of a motor vehicle collision (MVC). Seventy-nine patients were recruited from a random sample of litigating patients who incurred an mTBI and were referred for a neuropsychological examination due to subjective complaints of cognitive function. Of the total sample, 54 patients were categorized into the non-disabled group and 25 patients were categorized into the disabled group using the 4th edition of the American Medical Association (AMA) Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment (AMA; 1993). A multivariate analysis of variance revealed that performance on the NAB-S significantly differed between the two groups, and that memory and attention domains provided a more discriminative index of disability than general neuropsychological functions. In addition, discriminant function analyses revealed that the NAB-S correctly classified 73% of patients according to their group membership. The current findings provide evidence for the ecological validity of the NAB-S as a reliable index of real-world disability status as defined by the AMA Guides.     

脑损伤患者听觉P300电位特点

目的探讨听觉P300电位对脑损伤患者认知功能障碍程度法医学评价的应用价值。方法对正常人和脑损伤患者,分别在主动（踩踏板）与被动任务状态下进行听觉P300测试。结果正常人主动任务状态P300电位中的N2、P3波波幅较被动状态高,潜伏期无明显延长,N1、P2波幅Cz点高于Pz点。脑损伤组被动任务状态下N2、P3波波幅较正常人被动状态下高．且潜伏期延长。脑损伤组主动任务状态P300电位中的N2、P3波波幅较被动状态高,且潜伏期延长。注意障碍患者P3波潜伏期改变最明显。结论任务类型主要影响N2、P3波幅。被动反应中的N2、P3潜伏期可作为评价脑损伤患者认知功能的指标。     

Beyond Traumatic Brain Injury: Advancing Forensic Neuropsychological Assessment

As research on the cognitive impact of medical conditions and mental health disorders advances, it is imperative for forensic neuropsychologists to stay abreast of rapidly accumulating new empirical evidence from neuroscience and neuropsychology to disentangle multiple determinants of cognitive impairment. Although medicolegal neuropsychological assessments traditionally focused on traumatic brain injury (TBI) sequelae, it is equally important to consider the potential impact of any other acquired, or secondarily induced brain impairments, regardless of their source. Such injuries or conditions are at times assumed to cause a lesser cognitive impact than TBIs; however, their effects depend entirely on the factor in question. Injuries and illnesses implicated in civil litigation—and eventually affecting competency—can indeed involve TBI, but also anoxic/hypoxic injuries, pain, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), sensory deficits (e.g., tinnitus), and fatigue, and all, in turn, can affect an individual’s cognitive function and quality of life. Impairments caused by these conditions can be disabling and resistant to treatment, particularly, when the treatment is based on incorrect diagnostic, prognostic, and causality assumptions.     

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy Pathology After Shotgun Injury to the Brain

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) was initially conceptualized in boxers, but has extended to other athletes in recent years, albeit with limited clinical correlations. It is often asserted that CTE pathology represents the substrate for progressive neurodegenerative disease. We report the case of a shotgun injury to the brain with 42‐year survival and no neurological disease progression until shortly before death. The decedent had no other traumatic brain injury (TBI) exposure and did not play football or other high energy collision sport. Neuropathological examination confirmed tissue damage, but additionally demonstrated localized patterns of phosphorylated tau (p‐tau) meeting criteria for CTE pathology. P‐tau and TDP‐43 deposits within marginal tissue of damaged brain were also present focally. No amyloid‐β (Aβ) deposits were present. These findings indicate that CTE pathology may occur following a single, severe TBI.     

闭锁小带蛋白-1在脑外伤后皮质中的表达变化

目的观察闭锁小带蛋白-1(zonula occludens-1,ZO-1)在脑外伤后皮质中不同时段的表达变化。方法建立小鼠脑外伤模型,分为脑外伤后1h、3h、6h、12h、24h、3d、7d组,同时设立假手术组及正常对照组。脑皮质中伊文思蓝(Evans blue,EB)含量检测评估血脑屏障通透性,Western印迹法和免疫组织化学染色法检测损伤皮质区ZO-1的表达。结果脑外伤后1h皮质中EB含量开始增加,伤后1~3d达高峰,伤后7d接近正常。Western印迹法显示,ZO-1在损伤1h后表达下调,损伤1~3d达到最低值,损伤7d后明显回升,但仍低于假手术组和正常对照组。免疫组织化学染色显示,正常脑皮质血管中ZO-1呈强阳性表达,损伤后表达逐渐减弱,损伤3d后阳性表达几乎消失,之后逐渐恢复。结论ZO-1在脑外伤后皮质区呈先降低后升高的表达规律,与脑外伤后血脑屏障通透性变化规律呈负相关,为推断脑外伤损伤时间提供了新指标。     

Correlative Factors for Organic Psychotic Symptoms in Patients Following Traumatic Brain Injury

Objective To investigate the correlative factors for organic psychotic symptoms following trau matic brain injury （TBI）. Methods In the current study, 391 subjects who had undergone forensic iden tification of the organic mental disorders due to TBI were included, both the demographic and posttrau matic information collected. The relevant data were statistically analyzed in those confirmed as organic psychotic syndrome according to Chinese Classification of Mental Disorders 3rd version （CCMD3）. Re suits Fiftytwo subjects （13.3%） were identified as organic psychotic symptoms. The chisquare test showed that the detectable organic psychotic symptoms were associated with the marriage status, damage nature, injury severity and treatment, and the multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed good fitness of treatment and injury severity with the regression model （OR=0.044, 95% CI： 0.0170.114; OR=2.145, 95% CI： 1.201-3.832, respectively）. Conclusion The risks of organic psychotic symptoms following TBI can be involved in the alternative of craniotomy for the cases with trauma and moderate brain injury.     

Patient Profiles of Criminal Behavior in the Context of Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can lead to significant post‐traumatic disturbances in mood and behavior, with the frontal lobes playing a key role in emotional and behavioral regulation. Injury to the frontal lobe can result in disinhibition and aggression which can result in police intervention and/or incarceration. We highlight four adult cases with a history of severe TBI with frontal lobe injuries and the presence of post‐TBI criminal behaviors. There is evidence to support an anatomical basis for aggressive behaviors, yet there are other risk factors to be considered. Behaviors must be investigated thoroughly by obtaining adequate pre‐ and post‐TBI psychiatric and psychosocial histories. By having a comprehensive understanding of aggression while appreciating the complex relationship between TBI, aggression, and premorbid risk factors, clinicians can more adequately treat patients with TBI, with the aim of potentially preventing criminal behaviors and recidivism.     

外伤性癫痫法医学评定100例分析

目的探讨颅脑外伤后癫痫的法医学评定要点,提出外伤性癫痫的法医学评定依据。方法对100例颅脑损伤后癫痫患者门诊及住院病历,结合临床脑电图（EEG）结果、CT片、MRI片等影像学资料,进行了回顾性分析。结果依据GBl8667-2002《道路交通事故受伤人员伤残评定》标准有关颅脑损伤后癫痫发作类型、发作频率的相关条款规定,Ⅲ级伤残8人,Ⅴ级伤残10人,Ⅶ级伤残22人,Ⅸ级伤残40人,Ⅹ级伤残20人。误工期限、营养期限和护理期限评定结论时间长短差异较大,具有个体化特征。结论外伤后癫痫常继发于严重的颅脑损伤,其发作特点决定于颅脑外伤的部位和程度,外伤性癫痫法医学鉴定必须以外伤史及既往史为基础,结合电生理及影像学检查,综合癫痫发作类型、频率及药物控制情况作出正确的伤残等级及误工期限、护理期限、营养期限的鉴定结论。     

534例脑外伤所致精神障碍的司法精神病鉴定分析

目的分析脑外伤所致精神障碍的类型及鉴定的合理时间,探讨脑损伤程度及鉴定时间与智能损害程度的关系。方法对534例脑外伤患者的司法精神病鉴定资料进行回顾性分析。结果脑外伤所致精神障碍的类型中,器质性情感障碍最多(51.1%),其次为器质性神经症样综合征(24.0%)、器质性智能损害(18.0%)。伤残程度鉴定为Ⅷ级和Ⅸ级伤残最多,分别为219例(41.0%)和177例(33.1%)。智能损害组的脑损害程度、中国修订版韦氏成人智力量表(WAIS-RC)评定智力缺损程度明显高于非智能损害组(P0.05)。伤残等级和脑损伤分级、WAIS-RC评定结果、鉴定时的脑CT变化以及脑电地形图(brain electrical activity mapping,BEAM)异常分级具有相关性(P0.05),而智能损害程度与鉴定时间及脑损伤分级均无相关性(P0.05)。结论影响智能损害的因素很复杂,伤残程度鉴定时脑CT、BEAM、WAIS-RC等客观检查也是重要的参考指标。     

Traumatic Brain Injury Across the Lifespan: A Neuropsychological Tutorial for Attorneys

Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are prevalent across the lifespan and occur from multiple sources (e.g., motor vehicle accidents, falls, sports injuries, assaults, abuse). Because many of these injuries are compensable, plaintiff and defense counsel often rely on the expertise of a forensic neuropsychologist to help establish or refute the claim of the presence of TBI, or the degree of severity claimed. In this paper, we offer a tutorial in which we provide information that attorneys need to know in handling of TBI cases: We address definitions, epidemiology, pathophysiology, guidelines for grading TBI severity, and treatment. Also, we cover moderating variables that affect TBI outcome and recovery and specific forensic issues that may arise in the neuropsychological evaluation (e.g., symptom magnification, malingering). Although the focus is on mild TBI in adults, we also cover the more serious variants of moderate and severe adult TBI and include a separate all-severity section on pediatric populations. We consider the special challenges the attorney faces, for example, in establishing causality.     

颅脑损伤部位及程度与日常生活活动能力的相关性

目的：研究颅脑损伤部位及程度与日常生活活动能力的相关性,为提高鉴定意见的准确性提供理论依据。方法选取颅脑损伤被鉴定人501例,详细记录其伤前情况、损伤部位及程度、治疗方式、教育程度,应用日常生活活动能力量表（Barthel指数）对被鉴定人进行测验,统计损伤部位及程度与Barthel指数的相关性。结果轻度颅脑损伤组各损伤部位Barthel指数差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）;中度颅脑损伤组蛛网膜下腔出血与其他脑叶损伤,顶、枕叶损伤与额叶损伤,顶、枕叶损伤与颞叶损伤间Barthel指数差异均具有统计学意义（P〈0.05）,额叶损伤与颞叶损伤Barthel指数差异无统计学意义（P〉0.05）;重度颅脑损伤不论手术与否,各颅脑损伤部位的Barthel指数两两之间差异均有统计学意义（P〈0.05）。结论颅脑损伤部位与Barthel指数存在一定相关性,对分析判断颅脑损伤后日常生活活动能力具有重要的参考价值。