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1.
In spite of the fact that the mūla-text of the Cārvākasūtra is lost, we have some 30 fragments of the commentaries written by no fewer than four commentators, namely, Kambalāśvatara,
Purandara, Aviddhakarṇa, and Udbhaṭa. The existence of other commentators too has been suggested, of whom only one name is
mentioned: Bhāvivikta. Unfortunately no extract from his work is quoted anywhere. The position of the Cārvākas was nearer
the Buddhists (who admitted both perception and inference) than any other philosophical system. But in order to brand the
Cārvākas as pramāṇaikavādins they were made to appear as one with Bhartṛhari. Even though the commentators of the Cārvākasūtra had some differences among themselves concerning the interpretation of some aphorisms, they seem to have been unanimous in
regard to the number of pramāṇas to be admitted. It was perception and inference based on perception. Only in this sense they were pramāṇaikavādins. Unlike other systems of philosophy, the Cārvāka/Lokāyata did not accord equal value to perception and inference. Inference,
they said, must be grounded on perception first, so it was of secondary kind ( gauṇa). From the available evidence it is clear that the commentators were unanimous in one point, namely, primacy of perception
which includes admittance of such laukika inference as is preceded and hence can be tested by repeated observations. In this respect both Aviddkarṇa and Udbhaṭa were
in agreement with Purandara. Bhaṭṭodbhaṭa or Udbhaṭabhaṭṭa was known as a commentator who differed from the traditional Cārvākas
and broke new grounds in explaining some of the aphorisms. His commentary is creative in its own way but at the same time
unreliable in reconstructing the original Cārvāka position. Udbhaṭa seems to have digressed from the original, monist materialist position by taking a dualist position
concerning the body-consciousness relation. Moreover, he seems to verge on the idealist side in his explication of an aphorism.
In this sense he was a reformist or revisionist. Aviddhakarṇa, like Udbhaṭa, attempted to interpret the Cārvāka aphorisms
from the Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika point of view, perhaps without being converted to the Cārvāka. Since it is not possible at the present
state of our knowledge to determine whether they were Cārvākas converted to Nyāya or Naiyāyikas converted to Lokāyata, the
suggestion that they simply adopted the Cārvāka position while writing their commentaries without being converted to the Cārvāka,
may be taken as a third alternative. In spite of the meagre material available, it is evident that (1) not unlike the other
systems, there is a lack of uniformity in the commentary tradition of the Cārvākasūtra, (2) not all commentators were committed monistic materialists; at least one, namely, Udbhaṭa, was a dualist, and (3) in
course of time Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika terminology, such as gamya, gamaka, etc., quite foreign to the traditional Cārvāka, has been introduced into the Cārvāka system. 相似文献
2.
The proposed reflection intends to present the problem of judicial adjudication as a substantially-axiologically founded autonomous moment on the practical realization of law, and to explore this understanding in confrontation with external exigencies, mostly teleologically determined—hence, beyond strict deductive application, as a (normativistic-positivistic) syllogistic reference of facts to norms, and finalistically determined decision, as an option among possible alternatives to achieve specific aims. The main objective is to enter into a discussion on the methodological meaning of “integrity”, “hard cases” and “right answer”, as presented by Ronald Dworkin, and a critical reflection on the criticism(s) of that approach levelled by Neil MacCormick, so as to confront the relevance of principle and policy arguments, in order to bring about a different methodological approach, an alternative jurisprudentialist conception of adjudication, incorporating a practical-normative constitutive dialectics between legal controversy and legal system, such as that presented by Castanheira Neves. The focus will, then, be the legitimacy of the connection of arguments of principle and consequentialist arguments in adjudication, its selection and its justification, stating, therefore, a specifically assumed judicium, a judicative decision, having the legal system as its horizon of normative reference and of substantial and institutional autonomy. 相似文献
3.
In this essay, it is argued that Abhinavagupta’s theory of error, the apūrṇakhyāti theory, synthesizes two distinguishable Pratyabhij?ā treatments of error that were developed in three phases prior to him.
The first theory was developed in two stages, initially by Somānanda in the Śivadṛṣṭi (ŚD) and subsequently by Utpaladeva in his Īśvarapratyabhij?ākārikās (ĪPK) and his short autocommentary thereon, the Īśvarapratyabhij?āvṛtti (ĪPVṛ). This theory served to explain individual acts of misperception, and it was developed with the philosophy of the Buddhist
epistemologists in mind. In a third phase, Utpaladeva developed in his Śivadṛṣṭivṛtti (ŚDVṛ) a second theory of error, one that involved the noncognition of non-duality ( abhedākhyāti) and served to explain both the appearance and perception of multiplicity, despite the strict monism to which all Pratyabhij?ā
authors subscribe. Abhinavagupta’s treatment of error, then, is significant not only because it was meant to explain all the
various theories of error offered by opposing philosophical schools, as Rastogi has shown, but more importantly because it
synthesized the thinking of his predecessors on the matter in a single, elegant account of error. 相似文献
5.
This article is concerned with deviations from legal functioning of the modern state, which is supposedly grounded on legal
structure, but may conduct extra-legal activities. In this article, special focus is directed to certain extra-legal activities
of the following modern states: the Susurluk Affair in Turkey, the Iran-Contra Affairs of the USA, GAL in Spain, the Gibraltar
Killings committed by UK soldiers, and enforced disappearances in Argentina. These cases are interpreted from the points of
view of Max Weber’s and Jürgen Habermas’s theories of the rule of law, Hans Kelsen’s legal positivism, Carl Schmitt’s theories
of the political and sovereignty, and Austin Turk’s theory of political criminality. Our purpose, then, is to evaluate these
theories vis-à-vis the cases of extra-legal activities of the state.
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6.
A study of the global tendencies of criminal justice will help us design a more scientific and rational pathway for the reformation
of existing criminal justice system of China. In the forthcoming several hundred years to come, the world’s criminal justice
is to take on ten tendencies, that is, the tendency toward unity, civilization, science, rule of law, human rights, justice,
efficiency, specialization, standardization and harmony.
__________
Translated from Yanshan Daxue Xuebao ( Zhexue Shehui Kexueban) 燕山大学学报 (哲学社会科学版) (Journal of Yanshan University (Philosophy and Social Sciences Edition)), 2005, (1): 1–11 相似文献
7.
Abstract Profiles of Excellence: Achieving Success in the Nonprofit Sector E. B. Knauft, Renee Berger, and Sandra T. Gray San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991, 197 pages, cloth $22.95 Strategic Management in Non-Profit Organizations: An Administrator's Handbook Robert D. Hay Westport, CT: Quorum Books, Greenwood Press, 1990, 408 pages, cloth $59.95 A Nonprofit Organization Operating Manual: Planning for Survival and Growth Arnold J. Olenick and Philip R. Olenick New York: The Foundation Center, 1991, 484 pages, paper $29.95 Reviewer Brann J. Wry is director of the Performing Arts Management program at New York University. Exhibiting Cultures: The Poetics and Politics of Museum Display Ivan Karp and Steven D. Lavine, eds. Washington, D.C. and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991, 468 pages, paper $15.95. Reviewer Danielle Rice is curator of education for the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Accounting and Budgeting in Public and Nonprofit Organizations C. William Garner San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991, 272 pages, cloth $29.95 Reviewer Jan Masaoka is staff consultant/trainer for the Support Centers of San Francisco. Quality Management in the Nonprofit World Larry W. Kennedy San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991, 194 pages, cloth $22.95 Reviewer Brian Backe is the national marketing director for the Support Centers of America, a national service organization that provides management consulting, training, and information to non-profit organizations across the country. 相似文献
8.
The literature of Bhartṛhari and Maṇḍana attention in contemporary times. The writings of the prominent linguistic philosopher
and grammarian Bhartṛhari and of Manḍana, an encyclopedic scholar of later seventh century and most likely a senior contemporary
of Śaṅkara, shape Indian philosophical thinking to a great extent. On this premise, this study of the influence of Bhartṛhari
on Maṇḍana’s literature, the scope of this essay, allows us to explore the significance of Bhartṛhari’s writings, not only
to comprehend the philosophy of language, but also to understand the contribution of linguistic philosophy in shaping Advaita
philosophy in subsequent times. This comparison is not to question originality on the part of Maṇḍana, but rather to explore
the interrelationship between linguistic philosophy and the monistic philosophy of the Upaniṣadic tradition. Besides excavating
the role of Bhartṛhari writings on the texts of Maṇḍana, analysis this will reveal the interrelatedness of the Advaita school
of Śaṅkara often addressed as ‘pure non-dualism’ ( Kevalādvaita) and the Advaita of Bhartṛhari, identified as ‘non-dualism of the word-principle’ ( Śabdādvaita). 相似文献
9.
The seventeenth century placed Western political thought on a path increasingly concerned with ascertaining the legitimacy
of a determinate individual, parliamentary or popular sovereign. As early as Shakespeare, however, a parallel literary tradition
serves not to systematise, but to problematise the discourses used to assert the legitimacy with which control over law and
government is exercised. This article examines discourses of legal and political legitimacy spawned in early modernity. It
is argued that basic notions of ‘right’, ‘duty’, ‘justice’ and ‘power’ (corresponding, in their more vivid manifestations,
to categories of ‘heir’, ‘celebrity’, ‘martyr’ and ‘monster’) combine in discrete, but always encumbered ways, to generate
a variety of legitimating discourses. Whilst transcendentalist versions of those discourses begin to wane, their secular analogues
acquire steadily greater force. In addition to the Shakespearean histories, works of John Milton, Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine,
Friedrich Schiller and Richard Wagner are examined, along with some more contemporary or ironic renderings.
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10.
The Anaximander fragment, in the readings of both Heidegger and Derrida, speaks of that which exceeds positive law. In this
article, the author provides a detailed reading of Heidegger’s Der Spruch des Anaximander, showing how Heidegger relates this fragment to his thinking of Being, the latter having been ‘forgotten’ by metaphysics.
Heidegger’s reading at the same time involves a contemplation of technology and of the ontological relation of beings to each
other. Derrida’s reading of Heidegger’s Der Spruch highlights specifically those parts of Heidegger’s text where that which precedes Being’s gathering, Being’s disjoining or
dissemination, is pointed to. This disjoining, Derrida contends, speaks of the gift of a day more ancient than memory itself
and ties in closely with certain aspects of the thinking of Marx. Derrida’s focus on that which precedes Being is in turn
related to his contemplation of the law or condition of possibility of technology and also of that which makes possible a
relation to the other as other. This condition of possibility, or the gift of Being, which Heidegger’s text also speaks of,
involves a ‘higher law’ which can serve as a ‘measure’ for the evaluation, interpretation and transformation of positive law.
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11.
In order to provide for adequate legal protection mainly in mass-transactions on the internet, both the legislature and private parties increasingly, resort to so-called “opt in” and “opt out” mechanisms. Whether or not an “opt in” or an “opt out” mechanism is used is often decided on a case-by-case basis. The same is true regarding the circumstances under which private parties are or should be allowed to resort to “opt out” mechanisms, and if so, what restrictions should safeguard the free will of the addressees of such mechanisms. This paper argues that the existing “opt in” and “opt out” schemes should not be regarded and discussed as isolated phenomena. Rather, they should be analyzed from the viewpoint of a common underlying legal theory which builds on the common character of the underlying regulatory structure of all “opt in” and “opt out” schemes. This requires a complex matrix which comprises not only the opposites of “in” and “out”, but also of “active” and “inactive”, of “preference” and “non-preference” for the respective default rules, as well as of “ex ante” and “ex post” enforcement of the law. It also involves normative, economic, psychological and, last but not least, technical issues. 相似文献
12.
Mainstream criminology has traditionally focused on poverty as an isolated variable, whose effects are typically explored
by inserting a limited measure of this variable in a multivariate analysis. Peacemaking criminology, however, offers an alternative
perspective. In this paradigm, poverty is seen as a source of suffering and, to a degree, a “crime” in and of itself. Furthermore,
the suffering poverty engenders is an enveloping social experience that exposes its victims to concentrated disadvantage—or,
to use Jonathan Kozol’s (1991) term, to a range of “savage inequalities.” Thus, poverty is best understood not as an isolated
variable, but as a master status of fundamental social reality that subjects people to lives filled with suffering—suffering
that can engender criminal behavior. From a peacemaking perspective, a key avenue for preventing crime is, in the short run,
diminishing the suffering poverty causes and, in the long run, embracing social policies that reduce the prevalence of economic
suffering in contemporary society.
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13.
The aim of this paper is to clarify how Śālikanātha’s epistemology can be distinguished from that of Dharmakīrti, especially
in terms of their respective views on cognitive form ( ākāra). It has been pointed out that Śālikanātha’s tripuṭī theory and svayaṃprakāśa theory are very close to Dharmakīrti’s epistemology. However, it remains questionable if Śālikanātha, who belongs to the
Prābhākara branch of the Mīmāṃsā and is therefore a nirākāravādin, can subscribe to notions that Dharmakīrti developed on the basis of sākāravāda. The present paper concludes that Śālikanātha agrees with Dharmakīrti in assuming that a single cognition consists of three
parts; unlike Dharmakīrti, however, Śālikanātha puts emphasis on the difference between these parts, especially between the
cognition and its form, on the ground that the cognitive form belongs to the external thing, and not to the cognition ( nirākāravāda). In Dharmakīrti’s epistemology, the cognitive form belongs to cognition ( sākāravāda); in the ultimate level, there remains no difference between the three parts. 相似文献
14.
A total of 272 males from Greenland were typed for 11 Y-chromosome STRs DYS19, DYS385a/b, DYS389-I, DYS389-II, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393, DYS437, DYS438 and DYS439 with the PowerPlex ® Y System (Promega). A total of 146 different haplotypes were observed and the haplotype diversity was 0.9887. The number of haplotypes seen once was 108 and the most common haplotype was observed in 12 males. A significant FST value was observed ( FST = 0.012, P < 0.00001) when comparing the population of 15 locations in Greenland assigned to 7 groups. The significance could mainly be attributed to the subpopulation of males from Tasiilaq (East of Greenland). The RST value was not statistically significant ( RST = 0.016, P = 0.15). 相似文献
15.
The Mahāyāna Buddhist term dhāraṇī has been understood to be problematic since the mid-nineteenth century, when it was often translated as “magical phrase”
or “magical formula” and was considered to be emblematic of tantric Buddhism. The situation improved in contributions by Bernhard,
Lamotte and Braarvig, and the latter two suggested the translation be “memory,” but this remained difficult in many environments.
This paper argues that dhāraṇī is a function term denoting “codes/coding,” so that the category dhāraṇī is polysemic and context-sensitive. After reviewing Western scholarship, the article discusses dhāraṇī semantic values and issues of synonymy, the early applications of mantras, the sonic/graphic background of coding in India
extended into Buddhist applications, and the soteriological ideology of dhāraṇīs along with some of its many varieties. 相似文献
16.
The article offers a close reading of the famous upanişadic story of Indra, Virocana and Prajāpati from the eighth chapter
of the Chāndogya-Upanişad versus Śankara’s bhāşya, with special reference to the notions of suşupti and turīya. That Śankara is not always loyal to the Upanişadic texts is a well-known fact. That the Upanişads are (too) often read
through Śan-kara’s Advaitic eyes is also known. The following lines will not merely illustrate the gap between text and commentary
but will also reveal an unexpected Upanişadic depiction of ‘dreamless sleep’ and ‘transcendental consciousness’. Suşupti is described here as ‘one step too far’, as a ‘break’ or discontinuity in one’s consciousness; whereas turīya is depicted positively, and surprisingly even in wordly terms. Unlike the third state of consciousness in which there is
no ‘world’ nor ‘me’, and which is described through Indra’s character as ‘total destruction’ ( vināśa); in turīya, the world ‘comes back’, or rather the ‘renouncer’ returns to the world. Sankara’s position, as far as the story under discussion
is concerned, is radically different. For him, the Upanişadic story illustrates the continuity of consciousness in all its states. For him, the identification with merely one of the consciousness-states
is an error ( adhyāsa) which causes suffering. Consciousness prevails even in suşupti, and turīya has nothing to do with ‘coming back to the world’, since there is nowhere to come back from or to. Turīya, as seen by the Advaitin, consists of all the other states of consciousness together, or as K. C. Bhattacharyya puts it,
‘It is not only a stage among stages; it is the truth of the other stages’.
The article is dedicated to Prof. Daya Krishna (1924-2007). 相似文献
17.
Semioticians traditionally honor Russian linguistics of the early 20th century, and study Jakobson, Vinogradov, Vinokur or the early Trubetzkoy. They do, however, seldom consider
Russian philosophers of the same period. Gustav Shpet is an important representative of Russian philosophers in discussion with Hegel, Neo-Kantian
thinkers and contemporaries in Russia and abroad, among them Edmund Husserl, originator of transcendental phenomenology. Shpet
introduced Husserl’s phenomenology in Russia and expanded those ideas in his 1914 Appearance and Sense. A triangle “Hegel—Husserl—semiotics” emerged where Shpet emphasized the concept of discourse in phenomenology: a philosophical
challenge to modern semiotics.
Significant portions of the material in this paper were originally prepared for publication in a chapter contributed to the
volume A History of Russian Philosophy, 1830–1930, ed. Gary Hamburg and Randall Poole (Cambridge University Press, forthcoming), and are used here in a different context with
the kind permission of that publisher.
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18.
There are good reasons to think that Vāsudeva, Saṃkarṣaṇa, Pradyumna and Aniruddha already form a sort of implicit tetrad
in the HV. The aim of this paper is to draw attention to often overlooked data related to this tetrad. (1) Upon first reading,
the sequence of the HV episodes appears to be somewhat disconnected, and might lead one to conclude that no such grouping
of these figures had as of yet taken place. Nevertheless, a closer look at the structure of the text makes it clear that these
four characters are one of the main focuses of the narrator’s interest. (2) The relationships of these four heroes to one
another and to other deities will be examined. In addition to their close kinship, these heroes with the exception of Aniruddha,
are also said to be incarnations of other entities; thus the logic underpinning this grouping must be located at this other
level. (3) Considered against the backdrop of the entire HV, one realizes that a basic pattern is established in which the
presence of the goddess, under various names and functions, is required not only to facilitate Saṃkarṣaṇa’s and Kr̥ṣṇa’s births
and actions on earth, but also the actions of Pradyumna and Aniruddha. In fact, neither Kr̥ṣṇa Vāsudeva, nor Saṃkarṣaṇa, nor
Pradyumna nor Aniruddha can act entirely independently of her assistance. (4) The HV does not employ the word vyūha in connection with the group of Vāsudeva, Saṃkarṣaṇa, Pradyumna and Aniruddha. Nevertheless, during the battle waged to deliver
Aniruddha, the idea of vyūha is present even if the word itself is not. HV 110.47–49 describes a true trivyūha composed of three fighters (Vāsudeva, Saṃkarṣaṇa and Pradyumna), who are arranged in such a way as to protect one another.
The episode of Aniruddha’s liberation appears to be the missing link, showing clearly that at least Kr̥ṣṇa, Saṃkarṣaṇa and
Pradyumna are capable of assuming a vyūha as they fight the Rudraic forces. 相似文献
19.
In jurisdictions across the United States, the mandated arrest of individuals perpetrating domestic violence crimes termed
“mandatory arrest” or “pro-arrest” policies has become a key policy solution to the issue of domestic violence. The purposes
of the policies are to standardize the police response to, and increase the number of, arrests stemming from domestic violence
incidents by removing or reducing police discretion to arrest. In 1994, the New York state legislature passed the Family Protection
and Domestic Violence Intervention Act, which contained provisions enacting a mandatory arrest statute. Using information
from 183 callers to a telephone helpline for victims of domestic violence, we describe four unintended consequences of the
policy: “unwanted,” “dual,” “retaliatory,” and “no” arrest. Bi- and multivariate analyses are used to identify victim and
perpetrator sociodemographic, situational, and legal factors associated with each arrest type. Results are discussed in the
context of the effects of mandatory arrest policies and minimizing problems associated with it in the future.
Victoria Frye
Was the Director of Epidemiology and Surveillance for the Injury Prevention Program of the New York City Department of Health. 相似文献
20.
The purpose of this essay is, first, to suggest Ragnar Nurkse as a Law & Economics thinker, and second, yet more importantly,
to demonstrate the possibility and desirability of a Law & Economics of Development along Nurksean lines. Ragnar Nurkse (1907–1959),
whose 100th birthday is celebrated in 2007, is one of the founding fathers of classic development economics. Given the recent
interest in the Law & Economics of development, showing how a classic figure in the field successfully used such an approach
might be of considerable interest, especially as development economics is a very emotional field which may well profit from
the ‘objectivizing’ function of Law & Economics. Nurkse’s economics-based realism, his focus on what effect a program really
has, rather than what it is supposed to have, and on what a policy can steer or change and what not, based on a typically
Stiglerian attention to aggregate welfare, seem especially productive. Finally, the essay suggests a set of Nurkse-based principles
or theses for a Law & Economics of Development.
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