Use of the MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical (RC) Scales in Detecting Criminal Malingering

The purpose of the present study was to assess the effects of criminal malingering on the MMPI-2 Restructured Clinical (RC) scales. Sixty undergraduate students were given the MMPI-2 twice. One administration was conducted according to the MMPI-2 manual, and the other was given with a special set of malingering instructions specific to a prison setting. The two MMPI-2 profiles for each participant were scored for both the Basic and RC scales. Eight participants were eliminated from the data analysis due to validity (VRIN or TRIN) concerns. Data from the remaining 52 participants were analyzed using a 2 × 2 repeated measures ANOVA. Results showed that, as expected, the participants achieved higher MMPI-2 scores in the malingering condition. Also, participants achieved higher scores overall on the Basic scales and a significant interaction showed that participants achieved higher scores on the Basic Scales in the malingering condition than on the RC scales in that condition. These results supported prior research, indicating that malingerers produce elevated RC profiles. However, the present results also suggest that the Basic scales may be more effective in actually detecting malingerers, mainly due to the much lower ceiling on the RC scaled scores. Further implications of these findings for research and clinical work are also discussed.     

Association of the MMPI-2 Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) Validity Scales with Structured Malingering Criteria

The current study examined the validity scales of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF; Ben-Porath and Tellegen 2008) in relation to the structured malingering criteria developed to assess malingered neurocognitive dysfunction and pain-related disability. These criteria examined a sample of 251 individuals undergoing compensation-seeking evaluations, who completed a battery of response bias measures. The MMPI-2-RF over-reporting scales yielded large effect sizes in contrasting those in the probable/definite malingering groups from the incentive only groups. The largest effects were found for the Infrequent Responses and Gervais et al. (Assessment, 14, 196–208, 2007) Response Bias Scale, an experimental scale that can be scored on the MMPI-2-RF. Classification analyses were also utilized to examine various cut scores for the individual validity scales, as well as their use in combination. These results suggest that the MMPI-2-RF validity scales can be used to screen for malingering, as they exhibited good sensitivity at lower cutoffs. The implications of these results and their use in forensic evaluations are discussed.     

A comparison of simulation and known groups in the detection of malingering on the MMPI-2

Three groups of 30 inmates, one instructed to respond honestly, one to fake being mentally ill, and one to fake schizophrenia after being educated to its symptoms, were administered the MMPI-2. These simulation groups were compared to two forensic evaluation groups of 30 pretrial defendants, one believed to be mentally ill and one suspected of malingering based on their psychiatric history, in order to compare the results of simulation with those of the forensic context. The results demonstrated that those instructed to feign psychiatric disorder and those suspected of malingering in the forensic context scored significantly higher on all MMPI-2 validity indicators than did those with a history of psychiatric treatment and those instructed to respond honestly, yet did not differ from each other. These findings suggest that the results of simulation designs are comparable to those obtained from forensic subjects. The F(p) Scale failed to add incrementally to F in discriminating the two defendant groups.     

Potential for Bias in MMPI-2 Assessments Using the Fake Bad Scale (FBS)

The Fake Bad Scale (FBS), developed to identify malingering of emotional distress among claimants seeking compensation for personal injuries, was recently added to the MMPI-2 scoring materials, resulting in its widespread dissemination across the various clinical settings that use the MMPI-2 in psychological evaluations. We examine: (1) questions of item bias in the FBS; (2) how malingering and nonmalingering groups are identified in FBS studies, including whether the research has been broadly inclusive and fully represents the populations assessed by the MMPI-2; (3) the reliability and validity of the FBS; (4) the highly variable recommendations for raw score cut-offs and how they relate to T scores; (5) two inpatient groups [men in a tertiary care Veterans Affairs Healthcare System (VA) unit and women in an eating disorders program] who may be inappropriately labeled as malingering by the FBS; (6) the publisher’s statement on use of the FBS; and (7) a Frye hearing in Florida where the FBS was excluded from expert testimony, one of three so far. We raise questions about its potential bias against people with disabilities and physical illnesses, women, individuals exposed to highly traumatic situations, and those motivated to present themselves in a favorable light. Psychologists using the FBS for making decisions about clients’ motivations need to be aware of the serious problems with the scale’s use and the cases of its inadmissibility in court.     

The role of intelligence on performance on the Inventory of Legal Knowledge (ILK)

Previous research has shown that individuals with intellectual disabilities perform in the feigning range on malingering measures even when other data suggest that they are performing optimally. However, few studies to date have gone beyond intellectual disabilities and studied the full range of intelligence. Additionally, there are no data available examining the relationship between intelligence and performance on the Inventory of Legal Knowledge (ILK). The relationship between intelligence and performance on malingering tests is important because individuals with intellectual deficits may be incorrectly identified as malingering on these tests. The current study used a sample of state psychiatric hospital residents, adjudicated incompetent to proceed, and a sample of undergraduate university students to examine the relationship between intelligence and performance on the ILK. Results indicated three items on the ILK are correlated with intelligence and total scores were moderately correlated. Participants were further broken into groups using categorical ranges of Intelligence Quotient (IQ). Results were mixed regarding the relationship between ranges of IQ and performance on the ILK. Future directions and implications of this study are discussed.     

Incremental validity of MMPI and MMPI-2 clinical scales in detecting malingering

The efficacy of the F scale and F-K index in detecting faking of a mental illness was investigated for both the MMPI and MMPI-2. A total of 72 undergraduate students completed the MMPI and 74 completed the MMPI-2 after receiving instructions to feign severe mental illness. Student responses were analyzed against MMPI (n=180) and MMPI-2 (n=76) data obtained from psychiatric inpatients diagnosed with severe mental illnesses. Multiple regression analysis of the validity scales and F-K index indicate that the F scale is the best predictor of malingering both for the MMPI (r=64) and MMPI-2 (r=.74) and the two samples combined (r=.71). The Si and D scales accounted for statistically significant, yet small, amounts of incremental validity. The presence of a “sawtooth” pattern did not add any incremental validity. Though an F scale cut-off score of T>109 resulted in an 85.9% classification accuracy rate, it appears that categorizing scores into one of five ranges results in better classification accuracy than a single cut-off score.     

The Relationship Between Psychopathic Personality Features and Malingering Symptoms of Major Mental Illness

This study examined the relationship between psychopathy and malingering in a subsample of male prison inmates (n = 55) participating in a larger study of the clinical utility of various assessment measures in correctional settings. Participants' capacity to feign major mental illness successfully was evaluated using standard cutoff scores for the detection of malingering on a variety of instruments, including the Structured Inventory of Malingered Symptomatology (SIMS; G. P. Smith & G. O. Burger, 1997), the Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS; R. Rogers, R. M. Bagby, & S. E. Dickens, 1992), and the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI; L. Morey, 1991). Psychopathic traits were assessed via the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI; S.O. Lilienfeld & B. P. Andrews, 1996). Correlations between the malingering indices and the PPI were low (–.14 to .14) and not statistically significant. These findings fail to support the clinical intuition that individuals with higher levels of psychopathy are likely to be more adept at malingering.     

A review on feature selection in mobile malware detection

The widespread use of mobile devices in comparison to personal computers has led to a new era of information exchange. The purchase trends of personal computers have started decreasing whereas the shipment of mobile devices is increasing. In addition, the increasing power of mobile devices along with portability characteristics has attracted the attention of users. Not only are such devices popular among users, but they are favorite targets of attackers. The number of mobile malware is rapidly on the rise with malicious activities, such as stealing users data, sending premium messages and making phone call to premium numbers that users have no knowledge. Numerous studies have developed methods to thwart such attacks. In order to develop an effective detection system, we have to select a subset of features from hundreds of available features. In this paper, we studied 100 research works published between 2010 and 2014 with the perspective of feature selection in mobile malware detection. We categorize available features into four groups, namely, static features, dynamic features, hybrid features and applications metadata. Additionally, we discuss datasets used in the recent research studies as well as analyzing evaluation measures utilized.     

Detection of Malingered PTSD: An Overview of Clinical,Psychometric, and Physiological Assessment: Where Do We Stand?

ABSTRACT: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a condition that can be easily malingered for secondary gain. For this reason, it is important for physicians to understand the phenomenology of true PTSD and indicators that suggest an individual is malingering. This paper reviews the prevalence of PTSD for both the general population and for specific events, such as rape and terrorism, to familiarize evaluators with the frequency of its occurrence. The diagnostic criteria for PTSD, as well as potential ambiguities in the criteria, such as what constitutes an exposure to a traumatic event, are reviewed. Identified risk factors are reviewed as a potential way to help differentiate true cases of PTSD from malingered cases. The question of symptom overreporting as a feature of the disease versus a sign of malingering is discussed. We then examine how the clinician can use the clinical interview (e.g., SIRS, CAPS), psychometric testing, and the patient's physiological responses to detect malingering. Particular attention is paid to research on the MMPI and the subscales of infrequency (F), infrequency-psychopathology (Fp), and infrequency-posttraumatic stress disorder (Fptsd). Research and questions regarding the accuracy of self-report questionnaires, specifically the Mississippi Scale (MSS) and the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI), are examined. Validity, usability, and cutoff values for other psychometric tests, checklists, and physiological tests are discussed. The review includes a case, which shows how an individual used symptom checklist information to malinger PTSD and the inconsistencies in his story that the evaluator detected. We conclude with a discussion regarding future diagnostic criteria and suggestions for research, including a systematic multifaceted approach to identify malingering.     

Personality differences between women police recruits, their male counterparts, and the general female population

Presently police manager and their recruiting staff are using an increasing number of screening tools including psychological testing during the hiring processes. Prior research suggests that gender is often ignored in the review of testing results. This could lead to problems in the interpretation of results. This research investigates the existence, if any, in the pre-socialization personality differences between male and female police recruits as well as between female police recruits and the general population of females. Subjects (N=104) were from a multi-agency training facility in a southern state. Subjects completed the MMPI-2 at the beginning of their police academy training to control for any socialization effects the training may have. The diagnostic clinical scales, the content scales, and the gender scales of the MMPI-2 were subjected to independent discriminant function analyses to determine if differences between male and female recruits exist. Scale 5 (Mf), GM, and GF were analyzed via t-tests to determine if differences between the female recruits and women in the normative sample exist. All discriminant functions were significant at the .05 level. Scales that differentiated male and female recruits were: Ma (Scale 9), ASP, FRS, BIZ, Mf (Scale, 5), and GF. Female recruits differed from the female normative sample on only GF (recruits were lower). It is suggested that future research focus on the predictive power of the content scales for continuation in the police field. It is also suggested that future research investigate the flexibility of the gender constructs throughout the policing career. Author Notes: Send all enquires to Larry A. Gould, Ph.D., Dept. of Criminal Justice, Northern Arizona Univerity, Box 15005, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-5005. 1. A special thank you is given to Northern Arizona University for providing the funding of the parent project from which this research was accomplished. I also wish to extend my gratitude to those whose time and effort went into the collection and computer entry of the data—Dr. Larry Gould and Rachel Rowland. In addition, I would like to thank Dr. Clay Moore for the statistical “chats”.     

Comparability of the MMPI-2 F(p) and F scales and the SIRS in clinical use with suspected malingerers

Relationships among Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS) scores and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory--2 (MMPI-2) F(p) and F scores were examined for 63 suspected malingerers evaluated at either of two psychiatric facilities. Despite differences between facilities in terms of seriousness of subjects' offenses, mean scores on the malingering tests were similar. Cutting scores for F(p) and F resulting in substantial correspondence between these scales and the SIRS were derived. Use of the cut score for F(p) proposed by Arbisi and Ben-Porath (1995) resulted in less agreement with the SIRS than did a lower cut score. No substantial difference between F(p) and F in each scale's overall agreement with the SIRS was observed. A principal components analysis of the SIRS primary scales produced two factors, interpreted as Overreporting of Symptoms and Implausible Symptoms. F(p) was observed to correlate significantly with Implausible Symptoms but not with Overreporting of Symptoms; F was significantly correlated with both factors.     

Daubert,Cognitive Malingering,and Test Accuracy

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (1993) held that trial judges should permit expert scientific testimony only when the reasoning or methodology underlying the testimony is scientifically valid, and ... properly can be applied to the facts in issue. Vallabhajosula and van Gorp (V&vG, 2001) have suggested that when the Daubert standard is applied to tests for malingered cognitive deficits, courts should deem admissible only results that meet this mathematical standard: assuming a pretest probability of .3, a positive score on the malingering test should yield a posttest probability of at least .8. This paper shows that V&vG's criterion may lead to misunderstandings about the kind of information malingering measures provide. After reviewing cases that have discussed both the Daubert decision and malingered cognitive deficits, this paper uses data from the Test of Memory Malingering (T. N. Tombaugh, 1996) to provide a general characterization of the mathematical properties of malingering measures. The paper then describes how pretest knowledge about malingering is combined with knowledge about a test's performance to generate a posttest probability of malingering. The results can help mental health experts respond to Daubert-inspired challenges to conclusions based on malingering measures.     

The MMPI-2 and statisfactory police academy performance: Differences and correlations

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and its later revision (MMPI-2) have been the most frequently employed psychological instrument in the selection of law enforcement officers (Bartol, 1996). In this study, state police trooper cadets were given a broad number of measures including the MMPI-2 prior to academy admission. Their performance at the police academy was then analyzed and related to their performance on the MMPI-2. Using step-wise multiple linear regression. Hy3 and Sc4 scores produced significant negative correlation’s with academy final grade point average. Student’s unpaired 1-tests between successful and unsuccessful cadets revealed differences between the groups for several MMPI-2 subscales including, but not limited to, K, MA, and SI, Lastly, logistic regression revealed no single subscale, or combination of subscales, which significantly predicted classification of the cadets as either successful or unsuccessful based on their MMPI-2 scores alone. Author Note: Elements of this article have been presented at the 27^th Annual Conference of the Society of Police and Criminal Psychology in Portland, OR, October 1998.     

Further data on interrogative suggestibility and compliance scores following instructed malingering

Purpose. This study examined whether people can successfully feign high levels of interrogative suggestibility and compliance as measured by the Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales (GSS) and the Gudjonsson Compliance Scale (GCS) when given instructions to malinger. Methods. Participants (N = 90) were randomly allocated to one of three groups that received: (1) instructions to give into leading questions in order to look vulnerable to suggestions, (2) instructions to be compliant with the examiner, or (3) the standard GSS/GCS instructions. Results. One of the two malingering instructions led to modestly elevated scores of total suggestibility, while subscales remained unaffected. In contrast, both malingering groups obtained highly elevated compliance scores. Conclusions. These findings suggest that heightened suggestibility is rather difficult to malinger, thereby confirming the reliability of the GSS. On the other hand, it might be easier to malingering compliance as measured with the self‐report GCS.     

Screening for malingering/exaggeration of psychiatric symptomatology in prison inmates using the PICTS Confusion and Infrequency scales

A sample of 76 federal prison inmates with a history or current complaints of significant psychiatric symptomatology at intake were followed for a period of 4-39 months by a psychologist who rated the inmate as malingering (n=12), substantially exaggerating (n=32), minimally exaggerating (n=23), or honestly reporting (n=9) signs and symptoms of schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depression, or severe anxiety disorder. The Confusion-revised (Cf-r) and Infrequency (INF) scales of the Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles, which had been administered routinely at intake, revealed that only the INF successfully predicted malingering and exaggeration of psychiatric symptomatology even after pre-existing group differences in age, race, and overall criminal thinking were controlled. These results suggest that the INF scale can potentially serve as an effective initial screening measure for malingering/exaggeration in inmates presenting with mental health complaints.     

Detecting Feigned Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Current Methods and Future Directions

Feigned attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults is a significant issue in clinical settings, particularly regarding academic accommodations and access to controlled substances by university students. This article discusses the definitions, base rates, external incentives, psychometric detection strategies, and ethical implications of feigned ADHD. ADHD is characterized by a pattern of developmentally inappropriate inattentive, overactivity, and/or impulsivity, often persisting into adulthood. Estimates of the prevalence of non-credible ADHD in university settings range from 25 to 50%. Feigned ADHD may be detected with symptom and performance validity measures. The existing empirical research has failed to produce a clear psychometric solution to this important differential diagnosis. Identifying feigned ADHD is a difficult task, possibly because of the highly transparent, face-valid diagnostic criteria, and an atypical malingering strategy that evades established detection methods. Performance validity tests remain the best available method for identifying non-credible presentation during psychological evaluations of ADHD. Future practice recommendations should consider educational policy, diagnostic criteria, and psychometric research, including the development of self-report measures that reliably differentiate between genuine and feigned ADHD.     

The detection of simulated amnesia

Claims of amnesia are frequently raised in criminal and civil cases. There is a consensus in the legal community that amnesia is easily faked and practically impossible to disprove, and that many who claim to be amnesic are malingering. The present studies compared, on a variety of memory tasks, subjects instructed to simulate amnesia with subjects who had memory impairments due to brain damage. The simulators displayed patterns of performance different from those of memory-impaired subjects. These results suggest that lay-people have inaccurate beliefs about the cognitive features of amnesia, and do not distinguish among etiologically distinct amnestic disorders. Tasks that exploit lay-people's inaccurate beliefs about amnesia appear promising for the detection of malingering.     

A study of the interrelationships of several validity scales used in police selection

Validity scale data have received attention recently as providing valuable information about potential problematic police officer candidates. In this study, validity scale data from a number of selection instruments were obtained using 42 state police officer candidates. The scale used were the MMPI-2 L scale, the MMPI-2 K scale, the PAI Positive Impression Scale (PIM), the PAI Defensiveness Index (DI), the IPI Guardedness scale, the Hilson Life Adjustment Profile Lack of Candor scale, and the Inwald Survey 2 Denial of Shortcomings scale. Intercorrelations among the scales were developed and a factor analysis was performed. Factor analysis revealed two factors to be present. One is associated with the Hilson scales and is appropriately named guardedness or defensiveness. The other is associated with the MMPI-2 K scale and the PAI scales and is appropriately named social desirability. The MMPI-2 L scale loaded significantly on both factors and seemed to be the most general of the validity scales in terms of its characteristics. Implications of these analyses for police selection are discussed.     

Detection of Malingered ADHD Using the MMPI-2-RF

This study examined the utility of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory—2 Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) validity scales for detecting feigning and exaggeration of attention-deficit/hyperactive disorder (ADHD) among college students. Under a simulation study design, participants with and without ADHD were assigned to perform honestly or to feign or exaggerate deficits related to ADHD while completing self-report symptom inventories. Participants instructed to feign produced symptom profiles similar to honest clinical profiles and more severe than honest nonclinical profiles. Participants with ADHD instructed to exaggerate produced less severe profiles than those instructed to feign and more severe profiles than clinical controls. MMPI-2-RF scale Fp-r showed potential for use in malingered ADHD detection at a revised cut score, which was significantly lower than the cut score suggested in the test manual; use of the revised cut score will require further validation. Scales F-r, Fs, and FBS-r did not classify well, but should be assessed in future studies of malingered ADHD. Detection of exaggeration was consistently poorer than detection of feigning.     

Claims of amnesia for criminal offenses: psychopathology, substance abuse, and malingering

The forensic psychiatric examiner often encounters defendants who deny memory for their offense. Past research proposes a variety of factors to account for offense amnesia. To date there have been few systematic studies of offense amnesia in relation to psychiatric diagnosis, either alone or in combination with other known factors such as substance use and malingering. We studied 53 pretrial felony defendants who had been referred for psychiatric examination; 40% claimed amnesia for their offense. Examinees with psychotic disorders in general, and schizophrenia in particular, were relatively less likely to claim amnesia than were examinees with other diagnoses. Substance use at the time of the offense and associated substance use disorder diagnoses were positively associated with offense amnesia. Malingering diagnosed by general clinical criteria was a poor predictor of amnesia claims. These data suggests that two prominent reasons for referral for forensic psychiatric evaluation include the presence of psychotic symptoms and claims of amnesia for the offense.