Locus of control and sex offenders with an intellectual disability

Locus of control has been implicated as an important construct that is related to treatment outcome for several groups of offenders, including sexual offenders. However, little attention has been paid to how this construct is related to sexual offending by people with intellectual disabilities. Given this, 41 participants with intellectual disabilities were recruited into three groups: sex offenders who had undergone psychological treatment, sex offenders who had no history of treatment, and nonoffenders. All participants completed measures of locus of control and distorted cognitions. There was a significant difference between those who had and had not completed treatment in terms of cognitive distortions relating to sexual offending. There was no significant difference between the three groups on the measure of locus of control, with all three groups endorsing an external locus of control. Three possible explanations for how locus of control relates to sexual offending by people with intellectual disabilities is explored and discussed.     

Crime profiles and conditional release performance of psychopathic and non‐psychopathic sexual offenders

Purpose. This study investigated the influence of psychopathy and sex offender subtype on criminal history, probability of being granted conditional release, and performance while on conditional release in a diverse group of violent offenders. We predicted that psychopathic sexual offenders would be associated with relatively prolific violent and sexual offending, a high probability of successful conditional release applications despite their past behaviour (resulting from ‘putting on a good show’ in a parole hearing), and poor performance in the community. Methods. Information was gathered via a correctional file review of 310 Canadian male federal offenders. Offenders were categorized into groups based on their sexual offence history (non‐sex offender, rapist, child molester, or mixed rapist/molester) and Psychopathy Checklist – Revised (PCL‐R; Hare, 2003) ratings. Their offences (sexual, violent, or non‐violent) and their complete conditional release histories were coded. Results. Psychopathy was associated with more violent and non‐violent, but not sexual, offences. A significant interaction between psychopathy and offender subtype revealed that psychopathy was associated with a greater number of sex offences within child molesters. High‐psychopathy offenders (both sexual and non‐sexual offenders) were about 2.5 times more likely to be granted conditional release than non‐psychopathic offenders. Conclusions. Psychopathy is associated with more prolific sexual offending among child molesters and – despite their extensive criminal histories and high recidivism rate – a great proficiency in persuading parole boards to release them into the community. Specialized education and training in dealing with psychopathic offenders is urgently needed.     

A community forensic intellectual disability service: Twelve year follow up of referrals,analysis of referral patterns and assessment of harm reduction

Background. Previous reports on the outcome of services for offenders with developmental disabilities have found recidivism rates of between 40% and 70% with an elevated prevalence of sex offending, fire‐raising, and aggression. Studies have also reported that female offending rates in the intellectual disability population are broadly similar to those found in mainstream populations. All reports have been conducted on in‐patient or prison samples. The present report is of a community forensic intellectual disability service. Method. Two male cohorts of sex offenders (N = 121) and other types of offenders (N = 105) and female offenders (N = 21) are studied and compared. Data is reported on characteristics of the cohort, problems identified at referral, criminal justice disposal trends, index offences at time of referral, reoffending rates of up to 12 years after index offence, patterns of referral in the first 6 and second 6 years of the study period and the extent of harm reduction. Results. There were no differences between the groups on IQ and the sex offender cohort tended to be older. Female offenders had higher rates of mental illness although rates for the male cohorts were generally high at around 32%. The sex offending cohort had fewer problems with anger and aggression and alcohol abuse but a higher level of daily living problems and relationship problems. Female offenders had high rates of all problems studied except daily living problems. Unlike certain previous studies, sex offences predominated in the sex offender cohort while other types of offences predominated in the other two cohorts. Average age was lower for more recent referrals. Among recidivists only, a considerable amount of harm reduction was recorded. Conclusions. Fire raising and offences against children are not overly represented when compared with mainstream offenders. When compared with previous studies, it appears that a community forensic intellectual disability service may have an impact in reducing the number of offences committed over a 12 year follow up period.     

Psychiatric and Forensic Differences Between Men Charged with Sex Offences and Men Charged with Other Offences

Studies on differences between individuals convicted of sexual offences and nonsexual offences are sparse and there is an on-going debate as to whether sexual offenders differ from other offenders. The primary aim of this study was to determine demographic characteristics, prevalence of mental disorders, alcohol and drug use at the time of the crime and the criminal responsibility of individuals charged with sexual offences, compared to nonsexual crimes, with the aim of bringing awareness to the similarities and differences between men charged with sex offences and those charged with other crimes. This is a single-institution retrospective study of subjects charged with sexual offences and sent for institutional psychiatric evaluation to a Forensic Psychiatric Centre in an urban, academic, tertiary-care center. The control group consisted of individuals charged with nonsexual offences referred to the same center. Results showed significant differences between individuals charged with sexual offences and nonsexual offences. Men charged with sex offences more frequently committed their crimes alone and victimized children equally as often as adults. They also less frequently pleaded guilty in court. They were more likely to be abused in childhood and more often had antisocial personality disorder and paraphilias and less often substance-related disorders. The majority were considered criminally responsible. Our results show that sex offenders are different from nonsex offenders in many characteristics of their personal history, offence characteristics and forensic evaluations and these particular differences warrant different approaches to the prevention of future re-offending, compared to nonsex offenders.     

Cross-validation of the risk matrix 2000 sexual and violent scales

The predictive accuracy of the newly developed actuarial risk measures Risk Matrix 2000 Sexual/Violence (RMS, RMV) were cross validated and compared with two risk assessment measures (SVR-20 and Static-99) in a sample of sexual (n= 85) and nonsex violent (n= 46) offenders. The sexual offense reconviction rate for the sex offender group was 18% at 10 years follow-up, compared with 2% for the violent offenders. Survival analyses revealed the violent offenders were reconvicted at twice the rate compared to sexual offenders. The RMV significantly predicted violent recidivism in the sex and combined sex/violent offender groups. Although the RMS obtained marginal accuracy in predicting sexual reconviction in the sex offender group, none of the scales significantly predicted sexual reconviction. An item analysis revealed four factors not included in the risk scales that were significantly correlated with sexual and violent reconviction. Combining these factors with Static-99, RMV, and RMS increased the accuracy in predicting sexual reconviction.     

Risk assessment with intimate partner sex offenders

Abstract

Risk assessment with any offender presents a number of challenges. However, risk assessment with offenders who have committed offences against their partners presents practitioners with a number of additional challenges. Intimate Partner (IP) sex offenders are reported to be responsible for the majority of adult serious sexual offences in England and Wales. However, despite calls for a unified approach to sex offender theory there has been little integration between this and the IP and family sexual violence literature. This paper summarizes the relevant literature on prevalence and cross over of sexual abuse by IP offenders, patterns of abuse, generality of offending, psychopathology and risk concerns (including risk of intimate partner homicide). Based on this, recommendations are made for best practice with IP sex offenders.     

Delays in attentional processing when viewing sexual imagery: The development and comparison of two measures

Purpose. Critically important to effectively treating and managing sexual offending is the identification or validation of an offender's deviant sexual interests as the nature of their sexual interests is what demarcates repetitive sexual offenders from non‐offenders and lower risk offenders. As an alternative or verification to self‐report or phallometric measures, focus has turned to attention‐based measures. These measures assess sexual content‐induced delay (SCID), a specific form of attentional bias associated with preferred sexual content (images or text). Viewing time (VT) and choice reaction time (CRT) were developed and utilized to assess sexual interest via SCID ( Geer & Bellard, 1996 ) and examine the measures’ clinical utility via estimates of sensitivity and specificity. Method. Participants were 44 youth non‐sexual offenders, 60 university students, and 22 adult sexual offenders. Differences between groups were examined on various sub‐scores and receiver operator characteristic curves provided information on clinical utility. Results. The VT and CRT measures produced subtest scores with high reliability in all three samples. There were significant differences in VT between the adult sexual offenders and the youth non‐sexual offenders, but not between the youth non‐sexual offenders and the university students. Some of the VT subtests demonstrated good clinical utility in their ability to differentiate adult heterosexual sexual offenders from non‐sexual offenders (e.g., area under the curve (AUC) = 0.87 female mature images, 0.88 male child images). Interestingly, the VT and CRT measures provided significantly different results. Conclusion. The results of this study provide further evidence that measures of SCID are accurate and are useful as indications of sexual interest. Differences between measures suggest, however, that further work is required.     

Clinical assessment of adult sexual offenders with learning disabilities

Abstract

Assessment and treatment of adults with learning disabilities who commit sexual offences presents a number of challenges. Much of the professional forensic and psychiatric literature on work with this group concentrates on the development of interventions based on theoretical models of sexual offending originating from the mainstream criminal justice system and have often been adapted and applied to people with learning disabilities. Currently, there is very little evidence to demonstrate the effectiveness or validity of the adaptation and application of mainstream models to this population. The efficacy of such adapted models used to describe sexual offending in people with learning disabilities clearly has an impact of any intervention informed by them. In particular, some researchers suggest that key factors such as cognitive distortions are evident in sexual offenders with learning disabilities; there is, however, no research relating to the prevalence of these or other key factors within the general population of people with learning disabilities. The present literature review highlights some of the clinical issues with a particular focus on the assessment of deviant sexual interest. Specifically, the literature is confused with inconsistencies relating to the definition of the group, the extent and nature of offending and a lack of standardized methodology for assessment and comparison. Consideration is given to the particular needs of this group and the implications for research and treatment.     

Sexual fantasy in paedophile offenders: Can any model explain satisfactorily new findings from a study of Internet and contact sexual offenders?

Purpose. There is widespread acceptance that sexual fantasy plays a role in sexual offences but little clarity as the nature of this relationship. This paper seeks to understand better the role of fantasy in offending behaviour through the study of sexual fantasy in Internet child pornography offenders when compared with contact offenders. Differences in the patterns of sexual fantasy associated with the different offender types are explored in order to understand how fantasy content is associated with contact offences with children and desisting from such direct acting out. Methods. Participants were all convicted of child sexual offences and recruited with the help of the probation and prison services. Out of these, 16 were Internet‐only offenders, 25 were contact offenders with no history of Internet offending and 10 were offenders with a mixed contact and Internet offending history. A variety of self‐completion questionnaires including fantasy were completed on an individual basis together with a detailed interview. Results. The most common sexual fantasies were typical adult‐male heterosexual fantasies though a variety of child‐oriented and other fantasies were also common. Contact offenders reported fewer girl‐oriented sexual fantasies although the groups did not differ in terms of terms of boy‐oriented fantasies. There was evidence that confrontational fantasies were commoner among contact offenders than Internet offenders. There are relationships between early sexual experiences and fantasy but peer sexual contacts seemed to be important rather than sexual abuse. Conclusion. Generally, the contact offenders seem to have less sexual fantasy pertinent to their offending than did Internet offenders. Fantasy deficit may be involved in contact offending against children.     

Sexual offenders with learning disabilities: risk,recidivism and treatment

Abstract

While the literature on the assessment, treatment and management of non-learning disabled sexual offenders is well established, it is only in recent years that researchers and clinicians have focused on sexual offenders with learning disabilities. In contrast to mainstream sex offender treatment programmes, there are few evaluated community-based treatment programmes for sexual offenders with learning disabilities, and of the small number of published studies that describe treatment programmes, most are based on small samples and few have been validated empirically. Sexual offenders with learning disabilities differ from their non-disabled counterparts in several important ways, having implications for management and treatment. Due to methodological differences between studies, the prevalence of sexual offending by men with learning disabilities is not clear. However, in some studies, the sexual recidivism rate of offenders with learning disabilities is 6.8 times and 3.5 times that of non-disabled sexual offenders at 2- and 4-years’ follow-up, respectively. Sexual offenders with learning disabilities are also at greater risk of re-offending in a shorter time period. There remains an urgent need for further research into the assessment of risk and whether components from mainstream treatment programmes can be adapted to meet the needs of learning disabled sexual offenders. Approaches to working with sexual offenders with learning disabilities and programme development are discussed.     

Offence characteristics and cognitive functioning in juveniles adjudicated for illegal sexual behaviour

Intelligence differences exist between sex offenders and non-sex offenders in adult populations, but comparable intelligence differences are not consistently found among juveniles. However, juveniles may differ on measures of intelligence across offence-related variables used to subclassify adults. The purpose of the present study was to determine if between- and within-group differences exist in a sample of 925 juveniles adjudicated for illegal sexual and non-sexual behaviours across offence-related variables. The results suggest that juveniles adjudicated for illegal sexual behaviour outperformed juveniles adjudicated for non-sexual offences on Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) performance, though full-scale intelligence quotients scores for both groups were lower than would be expected in the general population. Unlike adult offenders, juveniles adjudicated for illegal sexual behaviour do not tend to differ on WASI performance across offence-related variables. These results provide additional evidence that these juveniles adjudicated for illegal sexual behaviour are categorically distinct from adults who sexually offend.     

The Static-99R predicts sexual and violent recidivism for individuals with low intellectual functioning*

A current debate is whether actuarial risk assessment tools predict sexual recidivism in sexual offenders with intellectual disabilities (SOIDs). Since intellectual functioning exists on a spectrum, the present study examined the predictive validity of the Static-99R across the range of intellectual functioning. The sample was comprised of 454 adult sexual offenders assessed at an outpatient clinic and followed for an average of 10 years. Offenders in the extremely low/borderline group had higher scores on the Static-99R than other offenders, largely due to their score on the detachment subscale of the Static-99R, but did not have significantly higher recidivism rates. Calibration analyses suggested that the expected and observed recidivism rates did not differ significantly. Intellectual functioning did not add incremental validity to the Static-99R. Further, there was no interaction between intellectual functioning and actuarial risk score. The results suggested that the Static-99R can be used across the range of intellectual functioning, albeit somewhat more cautiously for those at the lowest and highest end of the intellectual functioning distribution.     

Effective interventions for acquisitive offenders: An investigation of cognitive skills programmes

Purpose. Previous research has suggested that cognitive skills programmes completed by offenders may be more effective in reducing reconviction with nonacquisitive than acquisitive offenders. This study investigates whether a similar pattern is present with offenders who have completed accredited cognitive skills programmes in prisons in England and Wales. Method. Questionnaires measuring the cognitive deficits targeted by the programmes were administered to 8,303 offenders participating in cognitive skills programmes while in custody. A checklist on the individuals' behaviour was also completed for each participant. The questionnaires and the behaviour checklist were completed before, after, and at 8 weeks after the end of the course. Participants were assigned to one of three groups dependent upon the number of convictions they had received for acquisitive offences; non‐acquisitive, medium acquisitive and high acquisitive. Results. Offenders in the high acquisitive group showed greater need in the cognitive deficits at the pre‐course stage than the other two groups, for both the self‐completion questionnaires and the behaviour checklist. A comparison of preand post‐course scores on the questionnaires and the behaviour checklist showed positive effect sizes for all three groups. Some of the variables showed a greater change from pre‐ to post‐course in the groups that had been convicted of more acquisitive offences. Conclusion. Cognitive skills programmes appear to be as effective with offenders convicted of acquisitive crime as non‐acquisitive crime, although highly acquisitive offenders may benefit from an additional intervention. Further studies are needed to investigate whether this same result is upheld when the outcome measure is reconviction.     

Interrater reliability of Risk Matrix 2000/s

Actuarial risk assessment instruments for sexual offenders are often used in high-stakes decision making and therefore should be subject to stringent reliability and validity testing. Furthermore, those involved in the risk assessment of sexual offenders should be aware of the factors that may affect the reliability of these instruments. The present study examined the interrater reliability of the Risk Matrix 2000/s between one field rater and one independent rater with a sample of more than 100 sexual offenders. The results indicated good interrater reliability of the tool, although reliability varies from item to item. A number of factors were identified that seem to reduce the reliability of scoring. The present findings are strengthened by examining interrater reliability of the tool in the usual practitioner context and by calculating a range of reliability statistics. Strategies are suggested to increase reliability in the use of actuarial tools in routine practice.     

An investigation into maladaptive personality functioning in Internet sex offenders

Abstract

Psychopathology and maladaptive personality functioning are purported to play a significant role in the aetiology of sexual offending (e.g. Ahlmeyer et al., 2003; Murray, 2000). The present study examined whether this applied to those individuals who commit sexual offences against children via the Internet. The sample consisted of 30 Internet sex offenders, all completing mandatory 3-year community rehabilitation orders. Participants were administered the Personality Assessment Inventory (PAI) and two questionnaires pertaining to demographic characteristics and personal history. Results indicated that Internet sex offenders differed significantly from the normal population on a number of PAI scales, most strikingly: Warmth, Dominance, and Depression. This suggests that Internet offenders may experience deficits in interpersonal functioning and affective difficulties. Significant correlations were also found between hours per week spent accessing indecent images of children and PAI scales assessing Schizophrenia, Borderline Features, Depression, and Warmth. These findings are considered in relation to current empirical research and implications for therapeutic practice and future research are discussed.     

A modified Stroop task with sexual offenders: Replication of a study

Abstract

Cognitive–behavioural treatment of sexual offenders assumes that sexual offenders are motivated by deviant attitudes, perceptions and values. Although aspects of deviant schema can be assessed by questionnaires, self-report measures are limited by the respondent's willingness to be forthright and by the fact that, typically, these cognitive processes occur quickly, revealing signs of automaticity. Recent research by Smith and Waterman has suggested that the deviant schema of sexual offenders could be assessed using a version of the Stroop colour-naming task. Long latency periods to sexual colour words imply a longer information-processing route and evidence of pre-established (deviant) sexual cognitive schema. Stroop techniques may offer the advantage of eliminating limitations that arise when using self-report techniques, such as fakeability and social desirability concerns. The current study replicates and extends Smith and Waterman's results using samples of sexual offenders, non-sexual violent offenders and non-violent offenders. The cumulative results of the two studies suggests that Stroop techniques have promise, but that further work is required before measures are available that have sufficient reliability and validity to be used in applied contexts.     

Pedophile types and treatment perspectives

Pedophiles constitute a heterogeneous group of sex offenders. Direct physiological assessment of sexual arousal has significantly increased our diagnostic skill and capability of monitoring treatment response. Erectile response studies have indicated that the majority of pedophiles and incest offenders show arousal to other paraphilias and frequently to appropriate adult sexual stimuli. Many sexual offenders deny or minimize their problem during initial interviews, but when confronted with laboratory results indicating deviant sexual arousal, they often acknowledge and elaborate on the paraphilia(s). Complete data and diagnoses are crucial in integrating treatment in the cognitive-behavioral paradigm.     

Comparing persons found not criminally responsible on account of mental disorder for sexual offences versus nonsexual violent offences

Using data from the National Trajectory Project, we compared 50 individuals found Not Criminally Responsible on account of Mental Disorder (NCRMD) for sexual offences with 50 age- and gender-matched individuals found NCRMD for nonsexually violent offences. We also described the concurrent offenses, the symptoms at the time of the offense and the characteristics of the victims of offenders found NCRMD for sexual offences. Persons found NCRMD for sexual offences were less likely to be employed and were significantly younger at time of first psychiatric contact, but did not differ in other sociodemographic characteristics, other aspects of their psychiatric histories or in criminal history. Despite no differences in recidivism and no differences in behaviours between Review Board hearings when adjusting for unequal time at risk, persons found NCRMD for sexual offences had longer tenures under a Review Board mandate than persons found NCRMD for nonsexually violent offences. Given the many similarities between the two groups, this finding suggests that Review Boards may be unnecessarily conservative in how they manage sexual offenders.     

Further validation of the short self‐esteem scale with sexual offenders

Objective . This research was designed to validate a brief measure of self‐esteem in sexual offenders: the Short Self‐Esteem Scale (SSES). Method . The SSES was administered to 1,376 adult males serving a prison sentence for a sexual offence, and 40 non‐offending males. Results . The internal consistency and test–retest reliability of the measure were excellent. The measure was able to discriminate between different types of sexual offender, and between sexual offenders with differing levels of static risk. The instrument's sensitivity to sexual offender treatment intervention was also demonstrated. Conclusions . The SSES is a useful screening tool for self‐esteem deficits in sexual offenders. However it cannot identify problematic high self‐esteem and it does not differentiate between types or domains of self‐esteem.     

The development of a new risk model: The Threat Matrix

The risk assessment of sex offenders has evolved rapidly over a 20‐year period. However, there is still disparity between empirically evaluated approaches and the needs within the applied context. This article discusses the division between the current needs in the applied setting of sex offender risk assessment, and the existing approaches to risk assessment. It highlights key needs that ought to be responded to, to continue the evolution of sex offender risk assessment (i.e., increased automation of processes, additional emphasis on early identification and prevention, and the targeting of resources towards risk). A new risk assessment model termed the Threat Matrix is introduced as a proposed response to these needs. The new model uses information derived from police systems to make proactive assessments of those who may pose a risk of sexual violence, but who have not been convicted of sexual offences. The practical and ethical implications of implementing and testing this model are discussed.