法律文书的“模糊词语”

法律文书必须以精确的词语表达明晰的概念,这除了要求对同义(近义)词进行严格的选择外,对“模糊词语”有条件有限制地控制使用也是一个不容忽略的方面。语言中的词汇在语义方面有模糊与确切之分。表达没有明确外延的概念的词语通常称为“模糊词语”。比如春、夏、秋、冬四季,早晨、上午、下午、傍晚、夜间,都没     

模糊词语在法律活动中存在的基础、表达作用及适用范围

法律的强制性和权威性要求语言必须准确明白地记叙和说明，使人正确理解，不致产生歧义和误解。但语言是复杂多变的，有时，为了达到高度准确，不使用确切词语，反而故意使用模糊词语，把话说得模糊些、灵活些，以适应不断发展着的事物，或给一时难以概括得了的事物留有余地，这不但不使人觉得模棱两可、含糊其辞，反而比确切词语更能准确表情达意。因此，模糊词语的表达作用在法律活动领域中有其不可取代的作用，本文拟就模糊词语在法律活动领域中存在的基础、表达作用及其适用范围做一探讨。     

谈确切词语和模糊词语在法律语言中的作用

正确认识确切词语和模糊词语在法律语言中的地位和作用,对确保法律语言的准确性和严密性具有重要意义。在语言的使用中,表义的准确性和严密性往往是由确切词语和模糊词语共同完成的。模糊理论的创立者、美国科学家查德认为:“在自然语言中,句子中的词大部分是模糊集的名称,而不是非模糊集的名称。”一般说来,在文学语言中,模糊词语的使用     

论法律文书歧义句的负面影响、成因及消解

歧义句是指其意义存在两种或两种以上理解的句子。法律文书歧义句影响办案的效率,增加司法机关办案负担,损害有关当事人的利益。法律文书语言歧义句是由于词语的多义性、词义范围过大、结构多样性、语序不当、标点符号使用不当、施受关系不明和指代不明等原因造成的。法律文书歧义句可采用选用单义词语、追加语境,运用限制、标点符号、明确施受关系和指代对象等方法消解。     

略论法律语言中确切词语和模糊词语的使用

略论法律语言中确切词语和模糊词语的使用杨淑芳在现代汉语的词汇系统中，有些词语的语义比较确切，如：“凌晨四点”、“十四公分”、“十五周岁”等等，我们将这类语义中心明晰，语义边界也明晰的词语称之为确切词语。还有一些词语，其本身的含义带有明显的模糊性，如“...     

法律文书的语言教学

由于法律文书直接关系到国家的权益和公民的切身利益,因此法律文书在语言文字的运用上要比其他语体的各类文章要求更高更严格,必须在词语、句子、结构及语言风格等方面加强锤炼,所以在法律文书的教学实践中应加强对法律文书语言运用的教学。     

厦门东方设计装修工程有限公司与福建省实华房地产开发有限公司商品房包销合同纠纷案

当事人签订的合同中,对某一具体事项使用了不同的词语进行表述,在发生纠纷后双方当事人对这些词语的理解产生分歧的,人民法院在审判案件时应当结合合同全文、双方当事人经济往来的全过程,对当事人订立合同时的真实意思表示作出判断,在此基础上根据诚实信用的原则,对这些词语加以解释。不能简单、片面地强调词语文义上存在的差别。     

厦门东方设计装修工程有限公司与福建省实华房地产开发有限公司商品房包销合同纠纷案——最高人民法院民事判决书

当事人签订的合同中，对某一具体事项使用了不同的词语进行表述，在发生纠纷后双方当事人对这些词语的理解产生分歧的．人民法院在审判案件时应当结合合同全文、双方当事人经济往来的全过程，对当事人订立合同时的真实意思表示作出判断，在此基础上根据诚实信用的原则，对这些词语加以解释。不能简单、片面地强调词语文义上存在的差别。     

刑事执法行为相关规范

制作法律文书规范 法律文书的表述，要求案件事实的时间、地点清楚，作案手段、情节、因果关系明确；语言准确精炼；引用法律条款准确，适用法律全称，引用法律条文具体到条、款、项。     

撰写法律文书应注意的若干问题

起诉书、不起诉决定书、补充侦查决定书、刑事申诉复查决定书、检察建议书以及其他有关公文函件等等法律文书，是检察机关在刑事诉讼活动中出具的重要法律和公务文件。撰写法律文书是检察机关极为重要的一项工作，法律文书质量的优劣，直接影响着检察机关的形象，甚至影响到案件性质、事实、情节的认定。撰写法律文书必须字斟句酌，认真推敲，做到格式规范，内容准确，文字严谨，用词精当，既不应出现语病，更不能出现歧义。笔者根据检察工作实践，认为以下一些法律文书中容易出现的问题值得注意。 一、对案件的起因表述笼统 　　案件的起因…     

Does contextual information bias bitemark comparisons?

A growing body of research suggests that the interpretation of fingerprint evidence is open to contextual bias. While there has been suggestion in the literature that the same might apply to bitemarks – a form of identification evidence in which a degree of contextual information during the comparison phase is generally unavoidable – there have so far been no empirical studies to test this assertion. We explored dental and non-dental students' ability to state whether two bitemarks matched, while manipulating task ambiguity and the presence and emotional intensity of additional contextual information. Provision of the contextual information influenced participants' decisions on the ambiguous bitemarks. Interestingly, when participants were presented with highly emotional images and subliminally primed with the words ‘same’ and ‘guilty’, they made fewer matches relative to our control condition. Dental experience also played a role in decision-making, with dental students making more matches as the experiment progressed, regardless of context or task ambiguity. We discuss ways that this exploratory research can be extended in future studies.     

ON AMBIGUITY IN PERCEPTIONS OF RISK:IMPLICATIONS FOR CRIMINAL DECISION MAKING AND DETERRENCE*

Deterrence theorists and researchers have argued that the critical dimension of sanction certainty is its level—increasing the certainty of punishment from a lower to a higher level will inhibit criminal conduct. However, the true certainty of punishment is rarely known with much precision. Both Sherman (1990) and Nagin (1998) have suggested that ambiguity about the level of punishment certainty is itself consequential in the decision to commit or refrain from crime. Here, we investigate this proposition. We find some evidence that individuals are “ambiguity averse” for decisions involving losses such as criminal punishments. This finding means that a more ambiguous perceived certainty of punishment is a greater deterrent of some crimes than a nominally equivalent but less ambiguous one. However, this effect depends on how large an individual's risk certainty perception is initially. That is, we find evidence for “boundary effects” (Casey and Scholz, 1991a, 1991b) in which this effect holds for lower probabilities but reverses for higher ones. For higher detection probabilities, individuals become “ambiguity seeking” such that a less ambiguous detection probability has more deterrent value than a nominally equivalent but more ambiguous detection probability. Results are presented from two distinct, but complementary, analysis samples and empirical approaches. These samples include a survey to college students with several hypothetical choice problems and data from the Pathways to Desistance study, a longitudinal investigation of serious adolescent offenders transitioning from adolescence to young adulthood.     

An Appraisal of the National Health Insurance Scheme of Nigeria

Clarity is very important in legislative drafting to allow the drafter to eliminate ambiguity and vagueness in the law, which may affect the rights of citizens. Ambiguity occurs when in the law words can be interpreted in more than one way and vagueness occurs when there is doubt to where the words’ boundaries are or when the word has an open textured meaning. It is difficult to attain clarity due to the fact that in legislation ambiguity and vagueness may be caused by insufficient drafting instructions, and it is incumbent on the drafter to seek further clarifications. In pursuing clarity, some tools are needed such as the use of plain language which makes legislation clear and understandable for a lay person, gender-neutral language and the proper structuring or layout of the legislative intent to enhance clarity.     

法律适用：实然与应然的对接

法律适用并不是简单的包摄与被包摄关系。制定法的不合目的性、不周延性、模糊性及滞后性决定了法律规范不仅是不明确的,而且是有漏洞的。因此,在法律适用过程中,法官往往需要经过设证、归纳及类推等环节才能最后确定可以适用于待决案件的裁判规则。不仅如此,从法律适用的过程t观察,法律适用实际上是应然的法律规范与实然的案件事实不断接近,以致最后对接起来的创造性司法活动。     

Effects of pretrial juror bias,strength of evidence and deliberation process on juror decisions: new validity evidence of the Juror Bias Scale scores

This study examines the validity of the Juror Bias Scale scores in relation to the mock juror decisions reached in two real life homicide cases before and after the deliberation process. The judicial cases used varied in terms of the ambiguity of the evidence presented at both trials. The WLS methodology for statistical modelling of categorical data was used to analyse data. The findings indicated that the Juror Bias Scale scores successfully predict the verdicts and other related questions before and after deliberations in the case with ambiguous evidence. Furthermore, deliberations caused a generalisation effect on the pretrial juror bias in such a case, and enhanced the differences between defense-biased and prosecution-biased jurors in the verdicts delivered after deliberations. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to the use of pretrial juror bias questionnaires in jury selection.     

Reexamining the effect of christian denominational affiliation on death penalty support

Despite the fact that numerous Christian denominations in America condemn or condone the death penalty, extant research on the effects of religiosity on citizens’ support for capital punishment has generated ambiguous results of denominational affiliation. This empirical ambiguity may be the result of measurement error. Testing data from the General Social Survey, this study employs a historically and theologically grounded measure of religious tradition affiliation to contrast to past research. Controlling for religious beliefs, religious behaviors, and race, the results indicate that affiliation with any Christian denomination increases the likelihood that an individual will support the death penalty compared to nonreligious individuals. In contrast, members of different Christian religious traditions are no more or less likely to favor capital punishment than other Christian affiliates.     

Nonprofit and for-profit medical care: shifting roles and implications for health policy

The contemporary expansion of investor-owned health care facilities has stimulated much controversy but little response from policymakers. We believe this results from the apparently ambiguous relationship between ownership and socially valued outcomes. In our assessment, this ambiguity occurs largely because the effects of ownership are mediated in complex ways by characteristics of the services being delivered and the training of health care providers. Reviewing both the history and current performance of nonprofit and for-profit health care facilities, we identify some of the more important of these mediating factors. Taking these into account, there is a consistent influence of ownership on the delivery of health services. On the basis of this analysis, we discuss appropriate policy responses to the future growth of investor-owned health care organizations.     

Religion,Conversion, and Rehabilitation

Rehabilitation and conversion within the penal context are deeply ambiguous concepts. This ambiguity stems in part from the fact that little consensus has been reached among scholars as to the meaning of the terms beyond their ability to foster adjustment to institutional rules and obedience to law. This paper argues that each concept receives greater clarity and practical significance when understood in terms of moral transformation. The article will utilize the methodological framework of social scientific studies to underscore a contention, most commonly found in theological literature that conversion, and a fortiori rehabilitation, signal a shift from a divided to a unified consciousness based upon the experience of unconditional acceptance and, ultimately, its bestowal upon others and upon all forms of life.     

重新界定《中华人民共和国海商法》的调整对象——以主体-关系规范模式为视角

《中华人民共和国海商法》（简称《海商法》）调整对象的准确界定是该法修改成功的基础之一。《海商法》第1条关于＂调整海上运输关系、船舶关系＂的规定,被认为是《海商法》调整对象的规范表述,但该表述存在概念指称不清、外延过于宽泛或不确定、主体缺失与规定错位及调整对象与调整目标之间缺乏合理的对应关系等问题。关于《海商法》调整对象的学理解释观点纷呈,但均过于表面化,未能反思立法不当问题。通过对《海商法》调整对象界定依据的分析,指出应当依据实践诉求、空间要素、主体法律地位及体系性诉求,将《海商法》调整对象界定为平等主体间的法律地位及因船舶运输、船舶停泊、船舶归属与利用而产生的社会关系及与之有关的社会关系。