‘Customary internet-ional law’: Creating a body of customary law for cyberspace. Part 2: Applying custom as law to the Internet infrastructure

The shift in socio-economic transactions from real space to cyberspace through the emergence of electronic communications and digital formats has led to a disjuncture between the law and practices relating to electronic transactions. The speed at which information technology has developed require a faster, more reactive and automatic response from the law that is not currently met by the existing law-making framework. This paper suggests the development of special rules to enable Internet custom to form legal norms to fulfill this objective. In Part 2 of this article, I will construct the customary rules to Internet law-making that are applicable to electronic transactions by adapting customary international law rules; apply the suggested rules for determining customary Internet norms and identify some existing practices that may amount to established norms on the Internet, specifically practices relating to the Internet Infrastructure and Electronic Contracting.     

论国际淡水资源利用和保护法的发展

国际淡水资源利用和保护法的发展表明 ,司法判例和国际“软法”文件在国际环境法的发展中将起着重要的作用。目前 ,国际淡水资源利用和保护法中的许多习惯法规则的形成 ,也在很大程度上归功于相关的司法判例和国际“软法”。国际淡水资源利用和保护法的发展将使得国际环境法体系得到进一步健全和完善     

当代国际法的新发展与价值追求

在人类面临新挑战与国际社会出现新变化的背景下,国际法全球化与碎片化共存的现象明显,国际法的刑事化现象不断增多,国际法与国内法相互渗透、相互影响的趋势更加凸显, 国际法的调整范围不断向非传统安全领域扩展。与此同时,当代国际法所肩负的期望和使命也越来越多。发展、安全、人权等国际法价值目标已经得到了国际社会的普遍认可,国际宪政思潮已经成为国际法学界不能回避的课题,国际社会的民主和法治已成为时代要求,国际社会共同利益的理念已渗透到国际法中。     

知识产权国际造法新趋势

在 TRIPs 协议产生后十余年的时间里,知识产权国际造法活动明显加快。在WTO 体制之外,不少国际组织、机构和论坛围绕着如何处理保护知识产权与维护生物多样性、合理开发植物基因资源、促进公共健康、维护人权之间的关系等问题,对 TRIPs 协议所确立的一系列高标准的知识产权规则提出了批判,探讨和制订了一系列软法性质的、倡导人权和维护社会公共利益的知识产权新规则。这些活动打破了 WTO 和 WIPO 在国际法层面上对知识产权立法权的垄断,反映了国际社会对知识产权私权利之外的人权、公共健康等社会权益的日益重视,势必对未来知识产权国际立法和国内立法产生深远影响。     

浅析亨金在国际法上的主权思想

"主权"是传统国际法理论构架的基石,但此概念自引入国际法后一直争议颇多。本文简要梳理了传统主权理论和国际法上的主权学说,以期形成对比从而更有针对性地鉴别亨金的主权思想;重点分析了亨金在国际法上的主权思想,并将其概括为辩证的、务实的、动态的主权观,进而从国际人权法、国际立法以及国际秩序三个方面阐述亨金主权思想的积极影响。     

论环境法理念的变迁对国际环境法的影响

法律理念的变迁对法的目的、基本原则、法律主体的权利、义务与责任等方面均产生着深远的影响。对环境法理念的变迁和国际环境法的产生和发展这一凸现在20-21世纪人类面前的历史进程进行了考察和界划。从最初的"公害救济"到"环境权"理论,之后兴起的"尊重自然"学说到"可持续发展"思想,体现了人类对生态环境的基本认识从"人类中心主义"向"生态中心主义"嬗变的过程。环境法理念演进的客观向度表征着国际环境法的发展方向,昭示着这一新兴的法律部门将率先在世界范围内走向融合的必然趋势。     

国际法发展进程中的“观念”及其影响途径

在国际法的发展进程中,"观念"不仅是客观存在的,而且起到了至关重要的影响。不过,在国际法的研究中,以理性主义为认识论的主流学派,并没有对此做出过系统性分析。这正是主流国际法学本身的一个重大缺漏。研究表明,诸如"世界观"、"原则化观念"以及"因果信念"等在国际法的发展进程中,起到了"路线图"、"黏合剂",以及"制度化"等方面的影响。     

个人国际法主体地位评析

随着现代国际法的发展,国际人权保护领域、国际海洋法领域等出现了个人参与国际活动的现象。但是,无论是从国际法的定义、国际法主体的构成要素、还是从法律的最终目的、国际法的调整对象等方面分析,个人不能取得国际法主体地位,而只能是国际法的保护和惩治对象。不适当地扩大国际法主体的范围,把个人与国家相提并论,超越了当代国际关系的现实。     

论全球化时代国际经济法的公平价值取向——兼论发展中国家及我国的角色定位与战略选择

晚近,随着经济全球化的迅猛发展,国际经济领域掀起一股席卷各个层次的、以自由化为中心的造法运动,并初步构建出一个全球自由市场秩序体系.然而,当前国际经济立法面临着公平价值缺失的困境,并由此引发自身的"合法性"危机.鉴于此,在当代自由主义理论内部对正义内涵的争论中,寻找一种可资国际经济法的公平价值重构的理念成为必要,罗尔斯的复数正义理论对此提供了某种启发.当然,在国际经济法的公平价值重构中,发展中国家及我国对自身的正确定位以及战略选择也是至关重要的.     

The Right to a Healthy Environment,Human Rights andSustainable Development

The concept of sustainable development is presented as a solution able to cope with development needs and the preservation of the environment, protecting it for present and future generations. The right to a healthy environment may be part of existing international law being implemented through human rights instruments. The procedural aspect of the right to a healthy environment embodies the right to information, the right to participate and the right to effective remedies. Participation in the decision-making process and available and effective means of redress are essential features of the right to a healthy environment. Expressed in the field of human rights law, these principles convey the notions that citizens are entitle to participate. The Aarhus Convention links environmental protection and human rights norms and is the first international legally binding instrument elaborating on Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration and recognizing the right to a healthy environment.     

‘Customary internet-ional law’: Creating a body of customary law for cyberspace. Part 1: Developing rules for transitioning custom into law

The shift in socio-economic transactions from realspace to cyberspace through the emergence of electronic communications and digital formats has led to a disjuncture between the law and practices relating to electronic transactions. The speed at which information technology has developed require a faster, more reactive and automatic response from the law that is not currently met by the existing law-making framework. This paper suggests the development of special rules to enable Internet custom to form legal norms to fulfill this objective.     

论国际法规范的位阶

条约法公约首次在国际法上规定了强行法概念。国际法学者以强行法、对一切义务、国际罪行等的出现为根据,提出了位阶理论,主张国际法规范已经产生类似于国内法的"规范等级"。在实践中,位阶理论在确定国际法等级以及效力层次上的作用也极为有限。国际法院的判决在某种程度上仅仅是指明某些义务具有基础性,而并不能证明强行法规范具有高于一般规范的效力。尽管如此,位阶理论的提出仍使特定国际法规范的效力在某种程度上超出"同意",也在某种程度上解决了条约义务与国际社会根本义务相冲突的情形。     

国际贸易法治的危机及克服路径

当前国际贸易法治面临第二次世界大战以来空前之危机。此次危机具有深刻而复杂的国际背景及现实根源,但从国际贸易发展历史来看,贸易自由化与贸易保护主义的博弈从未消失,向来是国际贸易法发展中的永恒主题。当前国际贸易法治危机的根源依然是保护主义的幽灵作祟。今天的保护主义与历史上的保护主义并无本质上的区别,无非是添加了时代的特点和因素。法治的危机仍然需要法治的方式予以克服,当前国际贸易危机的本质说到底是国际贸易法治发展的不完善、不充分导致的,只有以法治的思维、法治的方法才能找到克服当前国际贸易危机的正确路径。     

面对国家的个人与面对个人的国家——全球化背景下国际法发展的元动力问题

传统上,国家间的互动关系被认为是国际法规则创制与实施的基本动力,但全球化,尤其是经济全球化使得国际法日益攸关个人的利益,个人与国家间的互动关系已然成为国际法发展的元动力。国际法只有以此为基点,才能更好地规范全球化,尤其是经济全球化的进程,使各国及其国民能够公平地享受全球化带来的好处。     

国内公法对国际法的影响

国际法包括私法意义上的国际法和公法意义上的国际法。近现代国际法本质上是一种私法意义上的国际法,但国际交往的日益频繁与复杂必然要求建立某种形式的等级制与集中化架构,公法意义上的国际法应运而生。作为一种后发的法律秩序,国际法受到较为成熟的国内法的影响是很自然的。在借鉴国内公法发展国际法时面临某些重要的障碍,也会产生不可忽视的风险,应该予以充分的注意。国内公法日益影响国际法的趋势对于中国的国际法理论与实践将产生重要的影响。     

Some Aspects of the Principle of " common="" butdifferentiated="" responsibilities""="

The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, one of the key concepts of sustainable development, has dual grounding; the pressures developed countries place on the global environment; and the technologies and financial resources they command. Though the developed countries are reluctant to admit the first grounding, the developing countries have a strong leverage to induce the former to accept differentiated treatment in their favor.Thus, this principle has become to be reflected in some conventions in the field of environment and development. The reflection of this principle takes two forms: one is "double standards" in environmental protection standards as well as their implementation in favor of developing countries; and the other is assistance by developed countries for sustainable development of developing countries. At present, "double standards" seem to be inevitable, but, they must be temporary measures in view of the integral and interdependent nature of global environment. And, in order to overcome these "double standards", the attainment by developing countries of their sustainable development seems to be indispensable. In a substantial number of environmental conventions, developed country parties assume obligations to assist development country parties. However, these obligations are confirmed to "incremental costs" necessary for implementation of the convention concerned, and do not extent to assistance for sustainable development in general. Changing consumption and production patterns seems to be one of the most important aspects of the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, since this concept takes issue, for the first time, with the pattern of development pursued by developed countries. However, this concept has much difficulties in translating into international legal terms.Though it may be difficult at present to characterize the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities to be a customary norm of international law, it is surely a basic principle of international law, and as such, may operate as a guiding principle for law-making, as well as for the interpretation and application of conventions in the field of environment and development.     

论卢旺达国际刑事法庭对国际刑法发展的贡献

卢旺达国际刑事法庭在1994年的建立和12年的审判实践经验为国际刑事法的发展作出了一定贡献.主要表现在:卢旺达国际刑事法庭是历史上首次建立专门审理非国际性武装冲突的国际刑事法庭;丰富了国际人道主义法的内容;扩大了对在非国际性武装冲突中犯罪的管辖权,进一步积累了国际刑事法院的审判经验,对国际刑法中的三大罪行的界定作出了新的阐释;推动了非洲国际法学的发展并在一定程度上促进了常设性国际刑事法院的建立.     

论预先防范原则在国际环境法中的地位

预先防范原则是在20世纪80、90年代出现在国际环境法领域的一种新的处理缺少确切科学证据的环境风险的主张.迄今已有至少八个国际环境条约载入了与预先防范原则有关的内容,虽然具体用词不尽相同;与预先防范原则有关的案例也已经有数个.以这些为研究对象,探讨预先防范原则在国际环境法上的地位.现在预先防范原则还没有形成国际环境法领域的习惯法,但很多国家愿意在处理缺少确切科学证据的环境风险时,使用与其相关的方法或措施.     

法经济学基本定理在环境法上的应用

对于先天缺少法律基石和理论依据的环境法来说,它的研究方法有必要运用法经济学中的基本原理、定理、分析工具和标准研究分析生态环境领域的经济活动和经济关系的规律性,环境与经济的内在联系和相互作用的关系表明了发展经济与保护环境必须协调发展的客观规律,运用经济规律、价值规律等在环境保护领域中发挥引导作用,为制定环境保护方针、技术经济政策、环境规划提供理论根据。对环保领域进行经济效益、社会效益的分析,即以法律经济学的思维方式来审视环境问题,运用经济手段和方法进行环境管理,研究环境措施的经济效果,为制定最佳环保方案提供依据。     

International Law and the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict: Actual Problems and Challenges

Cultural property may be under serious threat in the event of armed conflict. In the twentieth century, there were clear developments in international law aimed at preventing and punishing war crimes against cultural property. Despite this, the destruction of cultural property during armed conflict has continued. This article questions whether the existing international law standards with regard to the protection of cultural property during armed conflict are satisfactory, and whether or not a new instrument could be valuable. Although considerable shortcomings remain, instead of pleading for a new instrument, this article advocates raising ratification rates, the enhancement of the implementation of existing instruments, and monitoring and sanctioning mechanisms.