Missing persons-missing data: the need to collect antemortem dental records of missing persons

The subject of missing persons is of great concern to the community with numerous associated emotional, financial, and health costs. This paper examines the forensic medical issues raised by the delayed identification of individuals classified as "missing" and highlights the importance of including dental data in the investigation of missing persons. Focusing on Australia, the current approaches employed in missing persons investigations are outlined. Of particular significance is the fact that each of the eight Australian states and territories has its own Missing Persons Unit that operates within distinct state and territory legislation. Consequently, there is a lack of uniformity within Australia about the legal and procedural framework within which investigations of missing persons are conducted, and the interaction of that framework with coronial law procedures. One of the main investigative problems in missing persons investigations is the lack of forensic medical, particularly, odontological input. Forensic odontology has been employed in numerous cases in Australia where identity is unknown or uncertain because of remains being skeletonized, incinerated, or partly burnt. The routine employment of the forensic odontologist to assist in missing person inquiries, has however, been ignored. The failure to routinely employ forensic odontology in missing persons inquiries has resulted in numerous delays in identification. Three Australian cases are presented where the investigation of individuals whose identity was uncertain or unknown was prolonged due to the failure to utilize the appropriate (and available) dental resources. In light of the outcomes of these cases, we suggest that a national missing persons dental records database be established for future missing persons investigations. Such a database could be easily managed between a coronial system and a forensic medical institute. In Australia, a national missing persons dental records database could be incorporated into the National Coroners Information System (NCIS) managed, on behalf of Australia's Coroners, by the Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine. The existence of the NCIS would ensure operational collaboration in the implementation of the system and cost savings to Australian policing agencies involved in missing person inquiries. The implementation of such a database would facilitate timely and efficient reconciliation of clinical and postmortem dental records and have subsequent social and financial benefits.     

Engraved Suicide Notes: The Last Note Written on Body by Metallic Object

“ Suicide notes” are the notes, where the victim has documented the intention to terminate one's own life. The victim generally writes them on a paper, notebook, wall, or mirror by means of pen or marker. However, suicide notes written on one's own body are very rare, and suicide note engraved by some metallic objects over body has not yet reported. We present two cases where the victim had used some metallic objects to write a message on the body. These may be termed “engraved suicide notes.” We believe these to be the first reported cases where a metallic object was used for engraving the last notes on the body before committing suicide.     

Gunshot residue testing in suicides: Part II: Analysis by inductive coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry

Several different methods can be employed to test for gunshot residue (GSR) on a decedent's hands, including scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive x-ray (SEM/EDX) and inductive coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). In part I of this 2-part series, GSR results performed by SEM/EDX in undisputed cases of suicidal handgun wounds were studied. In part II, the same population was studied, deceased persons with undisputed suicidal handgun wounds, but GSR testing was performed using ICP-AES. A total of 102 cases were studied and analyzed for caliber of weapon, proximity of wound, and the results of the GSR testing. This study found that 50% of cases where the deceased was known to have fired a handgun immediately prior to death had positive GSR results by ICP/AES, which did not differ from the results of GSR testing by SEM/EDX. Since only 50% of cases where the person is known to have fired a weapon were positive for GSR by either method, this test should not be relied upon to determine whether someone has discharged a firearm and is not useful as a determining factor of whether or not a wound is self-inflicted or non-self-inflicted. While a positive GSR result may be of use, a negative result is not helpful in the medical examiner setting as a negative result indicates that either a person fired a weapon prior to death or a person did not fire a weapon prior to death.     

The Haddon matrix: applying an epidemiologic research tool as a framework for death investigation

The Haddon matrix is a research tool used by injury epidemiologists. Although this matrix has typically been used only in epidemiologic studies, it may serve as a framework to investigate the circumstances of traumatic deaths. This matrix consists of three rows representing time phases (before the injury incident, during the incident, and after the incident) and four columns representing the energy agent, characteristics of the deceased person, the environment, and the vehicle or vector resulting in the abnormal energy exchange, which are considered in the context of the three time phases. The authors present four cases illustrating how this epidemiologic tool can be useful during death investigations. Although the objectives for epidemiologic studies and medicolegal death investigations differ, this approach can be used to describe the circumstances surrounding an injury-related death.     

Is there human DNA on cats

The transfer, persistence, prevalence, and recovery of DNA (DNA-TPPR) can be highly relevant in forensic investigations to evaluate the presence and/or actions of a person of interest (POI). Whilst the DNA-TPPR-related research has increased significantly over the last decade, there is a lack of data on companion animals and their relationship to human DNA transfer. Given the commonality of cats and dogs in households around the world, companion animals as receptors and vectors for DNA transfer can be highly relevant in cases involving animals as victims of a criminal offense, or cases requiring activity level evaluations. Samples were collected from an external area on the right side of 20 cats to determine the prevalence and sources of human DNA on this area. Preliminary data shows that human DNA is present on household cats, its source is mainly from household inhabitants. Further studies are required to elucidate the means and level of transfer of human DNA to and from cats and other household animals. This knowledge can be relevant to sample targeting in specific case circumstances and/or when considering possible means of the presence of a person’s DNA at the crime scene location.     

Geoforensic search to crime scene: Remote sensing,geophysics, and dogs

In the absence of surface indications of burial sites, law enforcement or humanitarian organizations are faced with the difficult task of focusing large-scale ground searches to a manageable excavation area. A geoforensic-based survey may exclude parts of the landscape for reasons such as diggability or viewshed analysis but leave areas still too large for invasive exploration. This work examines how drone-based remote sensing, geophysics, and search dogs may be combined to narrow such searches. Here, we ask the reader to consider two examples where forensic geomorphology and land use provided a range of possible burial locations. Following this is a multi-proxy approach to similar dilemma, with a search-to-scene case study using remote sensing (drone photography), geophysics, ground probes, and search dogs. This approach is not presented as a definitive guide, but serves as an example of the conjunctive use of well-studied methods to approach a common problem in geoforensics.     

Corruption in Public Procurement: Finding the Right Indicators

Red flags are widely used to minimize the risk of various forms of economic misconduct, among which corruption in public procurement. Drawing on criminal investigations, the literature has developed several indicators of corruption in public procurements and has put them forward as viable risk indicators. But are they genuinely viable, if only corrupt procurements are analysed? Using a dataset of 192 public procurements — with 96 cases where corruption was detected and 96 cases where corruption was not detected — this paper addresses the identification of significant risk indicators of corruption. We find that only some indicators significantly relate to corruption and that eight of them (e.g. large tenders, lack of transparency and collusion of bidders) can best predict the occurrence of corruption in public procurements. With this paper we successfully tap into one of the most vulnerable areas of criminological research — selecting the right sample — and consequently, our results can help increase the detection of corruption, increase investigation effectiveness and minimize corruption opportunities.     

Assessing the Use of Profiling in Searches by Law Enforcement Personnel

This article considers statistical means of evaluating profiling in searches of individuals by law enforcement agencies. It reviews examples of inappropriate methods that have been used to date. A relatively recent, more appropriate, and simple method is elaborated and its usefulness documented with data from Maryland State Police highway stops and searches. The method evaluates profiling for specified groups of interest by comparing the relative magnitudes of contraband find rates among those stopped and searched of each group. When find rates are approximately the same across groups, then profiling used in making the stops and searches is deemed effective and nondiscriminatory. With an increasing number of jurisdictions mandated to collect data on stops and searches, it is important that appropriate methods be used in their analyses so correct public policy conclusions can be drawn.     

Communicating forensic scientific expertise: An analysis of expert reports and corresponding testimony in Tasmanian courts

Forensic criminology examines the use of forensic science in society. Justice can be hampered, for example, if the communication of forensic scientific findings is unclear or misleading, even if unintentionally. Although various recommendations guide the communication of forensic science, it is unclear whether they are reflected in practice. This study explored the communication of forensic biology in 10 cases of major crimes against the person heard in the Tasmanian Supreme Court, where the standard practice is to issue brief summary reports in the first instance. The content of expert reports and corresponding testimony was analysed to determine its adherence to recommendations outlined in standards, practice notes, and research. While reports were found to be very brief, testimony elaborated on all major elements. Mostly elicited by the prosecution, some elements were volunteered by expert witnesses, or raised by defence. Overall, expert evidence in courts—but not reports (due to the use of brief summary reports)—largely adhered to recommendations. Further research is needed to determine the prevalence and effectiveness of alternative approaches to communication that were identified in certain cases.     

Single cells for forensic DNA analysis--from evidence material to test tube

Abstract: The purpose of this project was to develop a method that, while providing morphological quality control, allows single cells to be obtained from the surfaces of various evidence materials and be made available for DNA analysis in cases where only small amounts of cell material are present or where only mixed traces are found. With the SteREO Lumar.V12 stereomicroscope and UV unit from Zeiss, it was possible to detect and assess single epithelial cells on the surfaces of various objects (e.g., glass, plastic, metal). A digitally operated micromanipulator developed by aura optik was used to lift a single cell from the surface of evidence material and to transfer it to a conventional PCR tube or to an AmpliGrid^® from Advalytix. The actual lifting of the cells was performed with microglobes that acted as carriers. The microglobes were held with microtweezers and were transferred to the DNA analysis receptacles along with the adhering cells. In a next step, the PCR can be carried out in this receptacle without removing the microglobe. Our method allows a single cell to be isolated directly from evidence material and be made available for forensic DNA analysis.     

Radiographic identification by mastoid sinus and arterial pattern

A skull and some incomplete postcranial remains were discovered in two searches over a two-month period near Santa Fe, New Mexico. The discoveries could be demonstrated to be from the same person, and the remains were shown to be consistent with a specific missing person on the basis of anthropological analysis. Further work led to a positive identification on multiple grounds, including agreement of the details of the mastoid sinus and endocranial arterial patterns observed radiographically. These features may be useful for establishing positive identification from skeletal remains when antemortem radiographic studies for comparison are limited to lateral cranial vault studies.     

A Hard Look at What We Know (and Still Need to Learn) About the "Costs" of the Exclusionary Rule: The NIJ Study and Other Studies of "Lost" Arrests

The controversy over a "good faith mistake" exception to the exclusionary rule and the 1982 National Institute of Justice study of the effects of the rule in California have focused attention on the "costs" of the rule. This article reviews the NIJ study and seven other relevant studies and concludes that the NIJ study's claim that the rule has a "major impact" on the disposition of felony arrests is misleading and exaggerated. California data show that prosecutors reject only 0.8% (8 in 1,000) of felony arrests because of illegal searches. The effect of the rule is concentrated in drug cases in which the rejection rate by prosecutors is 2.4% (not 30%, as suggested by the NIJ study), but the rejection rate for non-drug arrests is less than 0.3%, and the rate is even lower for violent crimes. Even if one looks at the cumulative effect of the rule through all stages of the felony process in California, only about 2.35% of felony arrests are lost because of illegal searches, and this is a high-side estimate based on potentially atypical samples. Moreover, studies of "lost arrests" have not differentiated between arrests resulting from bona fide crime investigations and arrests that resulted from arbitrary searches or arrests that were made to seize contraband, for harassment, or for purposes other than obtaining a conviction. The author concludes that available data show the cost of the rule is marginal, especially in view of the ambiguous nature of the lost arrests. Moreover, it is doubtful that a good faith mistake exception would save any substantial proportion of the arrests lost following illegal searches. In particular, an exception for searches conducted under an improper warrant would save only a negligible proportion of lost arrests.     

Studies of dentition abnormalities in children of the Republic of Armenia for the purpose of personality identification

This paper reports the results of investigations carried out to elucidate the frequency and the structure of various forms of abnormalities of dentition among the children of the preschool and school age in the Republic of Armenia. These data may be of help for the forensic medical personality identification especially for the expertise of unrecognized corpses. Moreover, these data provide an indirect picture of the prevalence of abnormalities of dentition among the adult population of the country. Specifically they may sometimes be used to identify the ethnic and/or racial background of a person.     

The evolution of consent search law

This study examines the legal issues associated with consent searches conducted by law enforcement officers to gather evidence for criminal prosecutions. Through a review of the available case law relating to consent searches the study examines the requirements of a valid consent to search, the issues associated with these requirements, and the relationship between these requirements and the Fourth Amendment. While the paper focuses on Supreme Court decisions, lower court cases are included to illustrate specific points and examine general trends. The reader is given a general understanding of judicial preferences for procedures to be used when effecting consent searches.     

Philemon and Baucis Deaths: Case Reports and Postmortem Biochemistry Contribution

The death of a person as a reaction to the death of another is known as Philemon and Baucis death and may represent a difficult challenge for pathologists, especially due to the decompositional changes that often characterized these situations. In this article, we describe two cases of Philemon and Baucis deaths, the first concerning a married couple and the second concerning a father and son. Postmortem investigations including radiology and biochemistry were performed. Based on the results of all investigations, deaths were attributed to natural causes. Third‐party involvement could be excluded in both situations. In one case, biochemical analysis results revealed potentially contributing causes of death. The reported cases emphasize the importance of correlating findings from different postmortem investigations to identify causes of death, precipitating conditions and predisposing disorders, thus allowing the conclusion of natural death to be reached and third‐party involvement to be excluded.     

Pinpointing TomTom location records: A forensic analysis

TomTom GPS navigation devices are one of the most popular kinds of satellite navigation devices in the UK, and are increasingly being examined in criminal cases to identify data of evidential value. This article outlines the format of TomTom location records and shows how these can be automatically extracted, enabling deleted location entries to be recovered. In addition, it shows how the type of a record – e.g. home or favourite location – can be determined and how to identify locations where the TomTom has actually been, as opposed to destinations which have been entered into the device. This information has been used in a number of different investigations including cases of kidnap, grooming, murder and terrorism, and can be of vital importance in cases where hundreds or even thousands of location entries are recovered from a TomTom device.     

Associated postmortem dental findings as an aid to personal identification.

The use of the unique features of the human dentition to aid in personal identification is well accepted within the forensic field. Indeed, despite advances in DNA and other identification methodologies, comparative dental identifications still play a major role in identifying the victims of violence, disaster or other misfortune. The classic comparative dental identification employs the use of postmortem and antemortem dental records (principally written notes and radiographs) to determine similarities and exclude discrepancies. In many cases the tentative identification of the individual is unknown and therefore antemortem records cannot be located. In such a situation a dental profile of the individual is developed to aid the search for the individual's identity. With such a profile a forensic odontologist can identify and report indicators for age at time of death, race (within the four major ethnic groups) and sex. In addition to these parameters the forensic dentist may be able to give more insight into the individual. This paper outlines, for the non-expert, some of the additional personal information that can be derived from the teeth of the deceased, and which may assist in their ultimate identification.     

Role of orthopedic implants and bone morphology in the identification of human remains

When conventional methods of identification, such as visual recognition and dental comparison, cannot be used to identify a deceased person, it becomes necessary to consider alternative methods. The presence of an orthopedic implant in a body may assist identification if ante-mortem medical records are available for comparison. Another method of identification involves comparison of ante-mortem and postmortem radiographs. Eight cases are reported from Forensic Science SA where the presence of orthopedic implants and/or ante-mortem radiographs were used to try to establish identification. In six cases, positive identification was established, and in two cases with upper limb orthopedic implants, the bones remained unidentified. Manufacturers were unable to provide any information about the distribution and use of the implants that could be of use with identification, as there are no requirements in Australia for individual medical implants to be tracked. Such a system has the potential to aid postmortem identification if serial codes were etched onto implants that could then be traced to manufacturers, surgeons, and recipients of these devices.     

Evaluation of certifier practices regarding alcohol-related deaths: Fulton County Medical Examiner's Center, Atlanta, Georgia, 2004

CONTEXT: Alcohol can contribute to various manners of death by acute intoxication that places a person at risk for fatal injury, acute fatal alcohol poisoning, or the various fatal complications of chronic abuse with or without superimposed acute intoxication. The reporting of alcohol use on the death certificate may vary with office policy or procedure, certifier judgment, and the timing of information received during investigation. OBJECTIVE: To determine the number of deaths including mention of alcohol use in the investigative case file, the number of death certificates on which alcohol use is reported, the number of discrepancies between the 2, and the possible reasons for observed discrepancies. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Retrospective case review of all deaths where alcohol use was mentioned in the investigative case file and/or on the death certificate for deaths investigated by the Fulton County Medical Examiner in Atlanta, Georgia, during a 1-year period between January 1, 2004, and December 31, 2004. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Percentage of deaths with alcohol use reported on the death certificate, tabulation of where and how alcohol use is reported on the death certificate, and tabulation of the differences between the investigative case file and death certificate regarding alcohol's possible role in causing death. RESULTS: Among the 1324 deaths certified by the office, 105 (8%) had alcohol use reported on the death certificate. The majority (67%) of these cases were natural deaths. Sixty-nine (5%) deaths had mention of alcohol use in the investigative case notes but did not include it on the death certificate. Twenty-five (2%) deaths had mention of alcohol on the death certificate but did not have mention of it in the investigative case file based on our search criteria. However, subsequent review of additional case follow-up information disclosed a history of alcohol use or acute intoxication in each case. CONCLUSIONS: The data show that more natural deaths are considered to be directly caused by alcohol than other manners of death. For the unnatural manners of death (excluding acute alcohol poisoning), alcohol use is often viewed by medical examiners as an incidental, associated finding or risk factor surrounding the circumstances of death rather than being an actual cause of death. In such cases, alcohol use is often omitted from the death certificate. For deaths directly caused by alcohol, the proportion of cases involving possible underreporting or overreporting of alcohol involvement was relatively small and usually involved the omission of chronic alcohol use from the death certificate. Researchers need to be aware of potential limitations of death certificate data for studying alcohol-related deaths.