政治文明与宪政的关系

政治文明是一个从物质文明和精神文明之中抽象出来的且相对独立的概念。从内涵上说 ,政治文明的核心是政治民主 ;从外延上说 ,政治文明包括政治观念的文明、政治规范的文明和政治秩序的文明。政治文明同宪政的关系表现为 :政治文明是宪政的前提和基础 ;宪政是政治文明的支柱和灵魂 ;现代政治文明发展的主流、本质和终极趋向是政治文明的宪法化和宪政文明。文章最后还讨论了政治文明与中国宪政的建构问题 :即建构“民主”与“宪政”的协调并用模式 ,重塑“权力”与“权利”的互动关系模式及完善“国家”和“社会”的二元结构模式     

宪政四题

宪政是一种先进的政治理念 ,是现代政治文明的一种集中体现。宪政与宪法、自由、人权、民主、法治的关系极为密切。世界近现代政治文明发展的历史充分说明 ,宪政乃良宪之治 ,法治之本 ,是个人自由的最大公约化 ,是民主进步的航标。本文试图从不同角度对宪政进行多维的透析 ,以期揭示宪政的内在本质和基本精神。     

宪政价值新考

在文明高度发展的现代国家,文明的政治可转读为宪政。其涵义为:宪法是政治行为的价值尺度和运动形态。现代宪法是现代政治文明的逻辑起点。在价值上,宪政表现为两个维度。即包含民主、自由、正义、秩序、人性化等因素在内的“目的性价值”和包含权威、责任、规范、程序、稳定性、适应性等在内的“工具性价值”。其价值理性即集中地体现在对于这两种价值的整合上。     

从救亡到启蒙:近代中国宪政运动之回顾与反思

在“救亡压倒启蒙”的历史大背景下 ,近代中国宪政运动始于救亡 ,却止于启蒙。近代中国宪政运动之“所指”与宪政之“能指”错位 ,尤其是近代中国的政治与社会格局并不支持以个人主义为价值基础的宪法与宪政 ,因此 ,近代中国之宪政运动虽始于救亡 ,但却注定无法完成这一过于沉重的历史使命 ,其现实及历史意义仅止于有限的启蒙。     

论如何完善我国的宪政建设

宪法是国家的根本大法,它规定着国家的根本制度和根本任务。宪政是以宪法为依据治理国家的民主政治。宪政建设是建设法治国家、建设政治文明以及制度强国、兴国的必由之路。要加强中国的宪政建设,必须认真对待宪法,高度重视宪法的监督实施;加强和改善人民代表大会制度;高度重视宪政的具体制度、具体程序的建设;切实加强和改善党的领导,发展党内民主;并且必须借鉴人类政治文明的有益成果。     

宪法修正与宪政民主观的确立

宪政民主观构成了现代国家政治权力存在和运行的首要正当性基础。一九八二年以来的四次宪法修改特别是新近的宪法修正案 ,不仅使宪法内容和形式更完善 ,而且凸显了朝野关于民主的新认识。政治文明、人权保障、“三个代表”重要思想等内容入宪表明我们正在放弃历时长久的“革命”民主观 ,并形成一种新的宪政民主思维     

政治文明与宪政文明关系论纲

建设社会主义政治文明 ,是社会主义现代化建设的重要目标。从人类社会政治历史的发展过程来看 ,政治文明的发展与演进 ,主要是以宪政运动的形式表现出来的 ,宪政文明是政治文明高度发展的产物 ,现代政治文明的基本内涵就是宪政文明。宪政文明构成了现代政治文明的核心。中国必须吸收和借鉴世界政治文明发展和宪政文明建设的有益的经验 ,并根据我国的实际情况 ,建设一种有中国特色的社会主义政治文明、宪政文明和法治文明。     

宪政正当性论略

宪政是按宪法运作的政治和政治体制,是颁布宪法的必然目标和实践归属。我国一些学者却明确提出了“不能把‘宪政’作为我国的基本政治概念”的主张,这种“宪政否定论”不仅在一定程度上淡化新中国对宪政建设的贡献,也削弱我国公民本来就很淡薄的宪法意识,应予纠正。宪政是一个比民主、法治和人权抽象程度更高的概念,可以涵括我国现行政治理念,客观地对待现代政治文明,确立宪政的目标,加强宪法实施,把宪法规定的东西切实落实下去,是一种积极、稳妥、务实的民主政治发展道路。     

宪政:和谐的生活哲学

宪政属于宪法哲学范畴。宪法哲学属于哲学 ,属于法哲学、生活哲学、未来之学 ,属于科学。在宪法哲学的上述不同层面 ,宪政分别聚焦于对“宪法·人民·政府”、“权力·法律·权利”、“宪法·生活·政治”、“传统·现实·理想”、“正义·科学·效益”等相互关系之本源和应然的追问。对此 ,我们的回答是 :宪法是作为国家权力所有者的人民与作为国家权利行使者的政府之间的“契约” ;法治的精义在于通过对公权力廉洁性和完整性的“保障”而实现对人权的保障 ;宪政既以民主为基础又对民主的某些性格保持着警惕 ;宪政的理想可以激发完善现状的热情 ,历史的评判则可防杜社会的倒退 ;宪政同时结晶着科学、正义、效益三种精神。     

宪政理论范式转换及中国宪法学的回应

宪法学作为社会科学的分支,会随着时代的变化而转换研究范式。宪政理论研究范式大致经历了两种范式转换:近现代古典自由主义模式和当代新宪政主义模式。特定的语境和历史场境赋予了西方宪政概念及其理论自身的内在规定性与特定的理论定位和功能。宪政理论要想成为中国宪法学的理论,必须完成其概念和理论范式的转换。宪法秩序概念及理论涵盖了宪法运作现象的不同形态和不同层面,是对整个宪法运作现象和事实的全局性理论把握和综观性理性反映。它能够克服西方宪政理论的不足,体现中国宪法学对这种不足的回应,是宪政理论和概念范式转换的一种尝试。     

What similes in Sāṃkhya do: a comparison of the similes in the Sāṃkhya texts in the Mahābhārata, the Sāṃkhyakārikā and the Sāṃkhyasūtra

In Sāṃkhya similes are an important means to communicate basic philosophical teachings. In the texts similes are frequently used, especially in the Sāṃkhya passages in the Mahābhārata, in the Sāṃkhyakārikā and in the Sāṃkhyasūtra. This paper compares the similes in these three texts and analyses changes in the philosophy as revealed in the similes. A comparison of the similes of Sāṃkhya texts produced over more than one thousand years reveals changes in the emphasis in this philosophical system. The purpose of the similes in the Sāṃkhya passages of the Mahābhārata is to produce an intuitive understanding of the separateness of puruṣa and prakṛti. The similes are designed to lead the listener to understand this basic dualism. In the Sāṃkhyakārikā the most difficult issues are the relationship between prakṛti and puruṣa and the idea of prakṛti working for the salvation of puruṣa. One whole chapter of the Sāṃkhyasūtra is devoted to similes.     

The Brahman and the Word Principle (Śabda)

The literature of Bhartṛhari and Maṇḍana attention in contemporary times. The writings of the prominent linguistic philosopher and grammarian Bhartṛhari and of Manḍana, an encyclopedic scholar of later seventh century and most likely a senior contemporary of Śaṅkara, shape Indian philosophical thinking to a great extent. On this premise, this study of the influence of Bhartṛhari on Maṇḍana’s literature, the scope of this essay, allows us to explore the significance of Bhartṛhari’s writings, not only to comprehend the philosophy of language, but also to understand the contribution of linguistic philosophy in shaping Advaita philosophy in subsequent times. This comparison is not to question originality on the part of Maṇḍana, but rather to explore the interrelationship between linguistic philosophy and the monistic philosophy of the Upaniṣadic tradition. Besides excavating the role of Bhartṛhari writings on the texts of Maṇḍana, analysis this will reveal the interrelatedness of the Advaita school of Śaṅkara often addressed as ‘pure non-dualism’ (Kevalādvaita) and the Advaita of Bhartṛhari, identified as ‘non-dualism of the word-principle’ (Śabdādvaita).     

The Realism of Universals in Plato and Nyāya

It has become commonplace in introductions to Indian philosophy to construe Plato’s discussion of forms (εἶδος/ἰδέα) and the treatment in Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika of universals (sāmānya/jāti) as addressing the same philosophical issue, albeit in somewhat different ways. While such a comparison of the similarities and differences has interest and value as an initial reconnaissance of what each says about common properties, an examination of the roles that universals play in the rest of their philosophical enquiries vitiates this commonplace. This paper draws upon the primary texts to identify the following metaphysical, epistemological, semantic and soteriological roles that universals play in the philosophy of Plato and of Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika:

Metaphysical: causal of the existence of x Metaphysical: constitutive of the identity/essence of x Epistemological: cognitively causal (i.e. of the cognition of one over many) Epistemological: epistemically causal (i.e. of knowledge of x) Semantic: necessary condition of speech and reason Epistemological: vindicatory of induction (Nyāya only) Metaphysical: explanatory of causation (Nyāya only) Soteriological: cathartic contemplation (Plato only)

These roles provide us with motivations or reasons to believe that universals exist. As we examine these motivations, we find pressures mounting against our assimilating Platonic forms and the universals of Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika in the discourse about common properties. It is especially when we appreciate the utterly different contribution that universals make in securing our highest welfare that we realize how Plato and the two sister schools are not so much talking somewhat differently about the same thing, but talking somewhat similarly about different things. This better understanding of this difference in these philosophies opens a route for our better understanding of their unique contributions in the ongoing dialogue of philosophy.     

The Descent of Power: Possession,Mysticism, and Initiation in the Śaiva Theology of Abhinavagupta

This paper surveys the key terms śaktipāta and samāveśa (both of which refer to religious experience) in the primary sources of Tantric Śaivism over several centuries of textual development, building up a theory as to their range of meanings. It specifically focuses on their usage by Abhinavagupta (Kāshmīr, 10th century) by presenting a complete translation of chapter 11 of his Tantrasāra. The paper thus serves to (a) illuminate the nature of spiritual experience and the qualifcations for religious praxis in Śaivism, (b) give insight into the worldview of the Tantric Śaivas, and (c) help in pinpointing a specific and significant issue in the phenomenological study of religion generally. An earlier version of this paper has been published in a somewhat different form in Evam: Forum on Indian Representations vol. 4, published by Samvad India, New Delhi, India. This paper could not have been written without two years of intensive study with Professor Alexis Sanderson of All Souls College, Oxford, whose scholarship has proved essential in advancing my understanding of Śaivism. Also very helpful was Dr. Somadeva Vasudeva, now of Columbia University, whose database and encyclopedic knowledge have been invaluable. The germ of the idea for this article was suggested to me when Professor Paul Muller-Ortega (University of Rochester) first pointed out to me the passage beginning at MVT 2.14.     

Without Negative Origins and Absolute Ends: A Jurisprudence of the Singular

This paper is a preparatory analysis for a jurisprudence of the singular. Through a critical analysis of the negativity and the absolving character of the transcendental metaphysics of law and justice it reads mainly through M. Heidegger, Heraclitus, G. Agamben and J-L. Nancy a realignment of the questioning of justice that takes its provisional name in ‘dike’, at thepoint where the routes of ontology, the juridical and the political intersect and reveal the pseudo-propriety of their presuppositions. Without the transcendental dialectical discourse of the origin and its absolving-absolute ‘ends’, this paper re-poses the urgency of thinking the singular-multiple ‘right’ otherwise. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The Sovereign Event in a Nation's Law

This article interrogates the relationship between the sovereign event and a legal decision that purports to place sovereignty beyond law. It argues that sovereignty cannot be regarded as unitary, and elaborates the process of iterability by which the sovereign event is split from the outset. This dynamic is examined through an interrogation of the non-justiciability of sovereignty in Mabo v. Queensland (No. 2)(1992). Along with the unitary conception of sovereignty, Mabo (No. 2) deployed an absolute measure for community in the form of the ‘skeletal principle’ of the doctrine of tenure. The paper argues that a conception of the political that affirms the One sovereign source of community and law instead of the original dis-position of law, nation and community repeats the original violence, and will, at best, run aground on the righteous (mis)recognition of the ‘appropriate savage’. It concludes with an indicative rethinking of community through the thought of Jean-Luc Nancy. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The emergence of a group of four characters (Vāsudeva, Saṃkarṣaṇa, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha) in the Harivaṃśa: points for consideration

There are good reasons to think that Vāsudeva, Saṃkarṣaṇa, Pradyumna and Aniruddha already form a sort of implicit tetrad in the HV. The aim of this paper is to draw attention to often overlooked data related to this tetrad. (1) Upon first reading, the sequence of the HV episodes appears to be somewhat disconnected, and might lead one to conclude that no such grouping of these figures had as of yet taken place. Nevertheless, a closer look at the structure of the text makes it clear that these four characters are one of the main focuses of the narrator’s interest. (2) The relationships of these four heroes to one another and to other deities will be examined. In addition to their close kinship, these heroes with the exception of Aniruddha, are also said to be incarnations of other entities; thus the logic underpinning this grouping must be located at this other level. (3) Considered against the backdrop of the entire HV, one realizes that a basic pattern is established in which the presence of the goddess, under various names and functions, is required not only to facilitate Saṃkarṣaṇa’s and Kr̥ṣṇa’s births and actions on earth, but also the actions of Pradyumna and Aniruddha. In fact, neither Kr̥ṣṇa Vāsudeva, nor Saṃkarṣaṇa, nor Pradyumna nor Aniruddha can act entirely independently of her assistance. (4) The HV does not employ the word vyūha in connection with the group of Vāsudeva, Saṃkarṣaṇa, Pradyumna and Aniruddha. Nevertheless, during the battle waged to deliver Aniruddha, the idea of vyūha is present even if the word itself is not. HV 110.47–49 describes a true trivyūha composed of three fighters (Vāsudeva, Saṃkarṣaṇa and Pradyumna), who are arranged in such a way as to protect one another. The episode of Aniruddha’s liberation appears to be the missing link, showing clearly that at least Kr̥ṣṇa, Saṃkarṣaṇa and Pradyumna are capable of assuming a vyūha as they fight the Rudraic forces.     

Changes in Fingerprints Depending on Physiological Factors

The aim of the study was to determine the effect of gender, body mass index, and time on the width of friction ridge impressions in fingerprints and the content of sweat and sebum forming the print. The research showed that the friction ridge impressions of women are significantly wider than those of men, and this tendency persists throughout the existence of the print. The differences may result from the anatomical structure of the skin, as well as from the use of protective products such as creams, which are used more often by women. The width of friction ridge impression is similar in underweight and overweight people, but greater than in those with normal body weight, and the amount of sweat and sebum increases with body weight. The passage of time significantly reduces both the width of the friction ridge impression and the content of sweat and sebum secretions in the print.     

Forensic identification science evidence since Daubert: Part I--A quantitative analysis of the exclusion of forensic identification science evidence

The U.S. Supreme Court decisions in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Inc. and Kumho Tire Co. Ltd. v. Carmichael transformed the way scientific expert evidence was reviewed in courts across the United States. To gauge the impact of these rulings on the admission of forensic identification evidence, the authors analyzed 548 judicial opinions from cases where admission of such evidence was challenged. Eighty-one cases (15%) involved exclusion or limitation of identification evidence, with 50 (65.7%) of these failing to meet the "reliability" threshold. This was largely because of a failure to demonstrate a sufficient scientific foundation for either the technique (27 cases) or the expert's conclusions (17 cases). The incidence of exclusion/limitation because of a lack of demonstrable reliability suggests that there is a continuing need for the forensic sciences to pursue research validating their underlying theories and techniques of identification to ensure their continued acceptance by the courts.