Naturschutz bei der Ausbringung von gentechnisch veränderten Organismen – Teil 1

Die Ausbringung von gentechnisch ver?nderten Organismen (GVO) in das Freiland – namentlich in Gestalt von gentechnisch modifiziertem Saatgut – erfolgt im Wege der (meist experimentellen) Freisetzung oder des gro?fl?chigen Anbaus. Die damit verbundenen Umweltrisiken werden mittels der Freisetzungsgenehmigung und der Genehmigung des Inverkehrbringens (IVB) kontrolliert. Nach Erteilung der IVB-Genehmigung finden zus?tzlich Kontrollen beim Ausbringen des GVO statt. Das gilt nach den allgemeinen Regeln des Wirtschaftsverwaltungsrechts insoweit, wie die Einhaltung der Genehmigung zu überwachen ist. Hinzu kommt jedoch, dass die Genehmigung des Inverkehrbringens, die für alle Standorte in der EU gilt, m?glicherweise nicht alle Risiken der konkreten Ausbringung erfassen kann und deshalb nachgeschaltete sog. nachmarktliche Ma?nahmen notwendig werden. Dieses Problem entsteht in ?hnlicher Weise bei den sog. vereinfachten oder differenzierten Verfahren der Freisetzungsgenehmigung, wenn die Genehmigung erteilt wird, aber die Ausbringungsstandorte noch offengelassen werden. Auf allen vier genannten Stufen – bei der Freisetzungsgenehmigung, der IVB-Genehmigung, den nachmarktlichen Ma?nahmen und den vereinfachten/differenzierten Verfahren – stellt sich die Frage, inwieweit dafür gesorgt wird, dass die Schutzgüter des Naturschutzrechts vor Sch?den bewahrt werden. Weitergehend ist denkbar, dass manche Fl?chen von GVO ganz freigehalten werden. Das Schutzziel best?nde dabei nicht in der Bewahrung der Umwelt vor Sch?den, sondern in der Koexistenz naturnaher ?kosysteme mit menschlich st?rker beeinflussten ?kosystemen. Für die Koexistenz gentechnikfreier konventioneller und organischer Landwirtschaft ist dies anerkannt. Für die Koexistenz gentechnikfreier Naturgebiete ist der Gedanke erst noch zu entwickeln. Hieraus ergeben sich für diesen Beitrag die folgenden Fragen: (1) Inwieweit sind Naturschutzbelange zu beachten a) bei der Freisetzungsgenehmigung b) bei der Genehmigung des IVB von GVO c) bei der Kontrolle des Ausbringens nach IVB-Genehmigung d) bei der Kontrolle des Ausbringens nach einer im vereinfachten oder differenzierten Verfahren erteilten Freisetzungsgenehmigung? (2) Inwieweit ist Gentechnikfreiheit mancher Gebiete als eine besondere Art von Naturschutz zul?ssig? Die vier ersten Fragen richten sind auf Regime der Vermeidung von Umweltsch?den (dazu unten B), die letzte Frage auf ein Regime der Koexistenz naturnaher ?kosysteme mit gentechnikverwendender Landwirtschaft (dazu unten C). Vorab ist das einschl?gige Recht zu bestimmen (A).     

Four Lessons for Developing Countries from the Trade Negotiations Over Access to Medicines

After the Agreement on the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) came into operation in 1995 developing countries have found themselves in a process of continual negotiation over intellectual property rights and access to medicines. These negotiations have taken place in the World Trade Organization and in the context of free trade agreements. The paper suggests that the only real win for developing countries has been the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health in 2001. What have been the lessons for developing countries in a decade of negotiations over access to medicines? Drawing on themes of rule complexity and regulatory ritualism the paper discusses four key lessons for developing countries. It concludes by arguing that developing countries will do better if they adopt a networked governance approach to negotiation rather than continuing to rely on traditional coalition formation.     

“The Spectacle of Fearsome Acts”: Crime in the Melting P(l)ot in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gangs of New York</Emphasis>

This paper explores the multi-layered representations of violence and crime in the recent Hollywood film Gangs of New York [Scorcese (2003) Miramax]. We use our exploration of this film to suggest that popular culture, even through its most mainstream products, can be seen as a critical criminological space where alternative views of law, crime and the state are made available. Rather than understanding Hollywood movies simply as vehicles for disseminating conventional mores, we suggest that they can furnish critical (and complex) points of view on law and crime and that the project of a critical criminology can be strengthened by engaging more forthrightly with these ubiquitous cultural forms.     

The challenge of institution-building in Asia and its implications for Asia-Europe relations

  East Asia, including Northeast Asia and Southeast Asia, has developed tightly-linked production/distribution networks through globalizing corporate activities. The vertical chain of production in East Asia has been even more sophisticated than economic integration in East Europe or Latin America. However, the political environment of East Asia for trade and investment has been far from borderless. The integration effort at the policy level has been very much limited so far, due to the historical background as well as geopolitics surrounding East Asia. The Asian currency/financial crisis provided these countries a historical turning point. After the burst of the crisis, East Asians realized that they have to take care of themselves in their difficulties, not depending on outside forces. A natural choice for them was to step into the realm of regionalism. In 1998, Japan and Korea officially announced that they would discard the long-lasting GATT/WTO-only approach and adapt the multi-layered approach, including both regionalism and multilateralism. The ultimate goal of regionalism would be a region-wide integration including ASEAN+3. As a steppingstone, Japan signed the Japan-Singapore Economic Partnership Agreement (JSEPA) in January 2002. In a parallel move, the ASEAN and China Leaders announced in November 2001 the establishment of an ASEAN-China Free Trade Area (ACFTA) within 10 years. This article will follow up the most recent advancement of regional institutional building in East Asia with the emphasis on peculiar characteristics of economic integration in the region and discuss its implications for Asia-Europe relations. This paper is heavily drawn from Kimura (2002, 2003).     

S&;T Parks and business incubators in middle-sized countries: the case of greece

This paper links the policy context regarding S&T parks to the objectives and characteristics of the established parks and incubators in a relatively small, converging European country. S&T parks and incubators in Greece during the past decade and a half have gradually shifted in terms of ownership and management from university/research institute to the private sector and in terms of financing from public to private funds, also involving the provision of seed capital and access to venture capital. This gradual shift toward more private engagement has created a variety of models out of which, it is hoped, successful innovative companies will emerge in larger numbers than in the past.

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A comparison of the Russian 13% flat rate PIT evasion stratified contributions and the US tax schedule

This paper reviews the existing literature on consumer credit reporting, the most extensively used instrument to overcome information asymmetry and adverse selection problems in credit markets. Despite the copious literature in economics and some research in regulatory policy, the legal community has paid almost no attention to the legal framework of consumer credit information systems, specially within the context of the European Union. Studies on the topic, however, seem particularly relevant in view of the establishment of a single market for consumer credit. This article ultimately calls for further legal research to address consumer protection concerns and inform future legislation.      

The European airline industry: law and economics of low cost carriers

This article offers an analysis of the European airline industry in order to understand the new dynamics of the competitive field. The liberalization process did not lead the entrance of competitors similar to incumbents, but a new organizational model has been developed, the one of low cost carriers. The incumbents’ reaction to the liberalization process coupled with the entrance of low cost companies into the sector are hence considered. Two theories are analysed: the contestable markets theory, to understand the theoretical vision that has influenced the liberalization process, and the core theory, a modern approach to the concept of destructive competition that, according to some authors, is a recurring problem in the sector. While numerous barriers to entry still exist, the paper examines how the organizational model of low cost companies has helped new entrants to overtake these obstacles. By the same token, the application of the core theory does not seem to justify strategic alliances taking place in these years. The competitive framework is definitely clearer if we analyse sector changes in a different way, from the point of view of low cost companies considered as new market actors.     

The evolution of European legal integration

This article contributes to the development of theories on European integration by testing and exploring statistical models on the long-term development of legislative activity of the European Commission. Drawing on legal information gained from the European Union’s PreLex database and analyzing it with the help of statistical analyses, we map out growth patterns of EU law between 1976 and 2003. We construct time-series models and models based on non-linear regression. While the performance of models based on the traditional theoretical approaches, intergovernmentalism and neo-functionalism, is rather poor, the analysis suggests that nonlinear dynamic models might be an interesting avenue for future conceptualizations of the EU integration process. This article is based on a paper presented at the ECPR Standing Group on the European Union Second Pan-European Conference on EU Politics, “Implications of a Wider Europe: Politics, Institutions and Diversity”, 24–26 June 2004, Bologna, Italy. We would like to thank the seminar participants for useful comments.