Bolt from the Blue or Avoidable Failure? Revisiting September 11 and the Origins of Strategic Surprise

Drawing on the strategic surprise, warning-response, and foreign policy literature, this article argues that the September 11 terror attacks should be regarded as a strategic surprise and examines a number of key factors that contributed to vulnerability and inhibited vigilance. Three broad explanatory "cuts" derived from the literature—psychological, bureau-organizational, and agenda-political—are deployed to sift through the rapidly expanding empirical record in an effort to shed light on the processes and contextual factors that left the United States vulnerable to the attacks. The article aims to improve our understanding of generic processes and practices that enhance or detract from vulnerability and vigilance.     

Reviews

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Bosnia's Muslim/Croat federation: A step in the right direction or another recipe for disaster?

A functioning Muslim/Croat Federation in Bosnia‐Hercegovina has been identified as central to the successful implementation of the Dayton Peace Plan. However, since this arrangement was first outlined in the Washington Agreement of March 1994, neither side has given the project its full support. It now remains to be seen whether both parties can bury their differences and work together towards a lasting peace and a better future.