Farmer cooperatives are the missing link to meet market demands in Laos

In the transition from subsistence to commercial agriculture, smallholders in Lao PDR need to get better organised to match market demand in terms of product volume and quality. This paper investigates the conditions for the emergence of cooperatives from existing farmers' groups. Our study revealed the importance of social networks and power relations as a factor of cohesion within groups. Local leadership plays a crucial role in connecting group members to the village and district institutions. Recommendations are provided to improve group management rules as a pre-requisite to turn groups into farmers' cooperatives.     

The welfare impacts of market channel choice by smallholder farmers in Tanzania

This article analyses the impact of market channel choice on household welfare by maize and pigeon pea smallholder farmers in Tanzania, using a multinomial endogenous treatment approach. The study utilises farm household-level data collected from a randomly selected sample of 700 smallholder farmers. The results show that participation with traders in nearby markets and wholesalers in nearby towns have a positive effect on consumption expenditure per capita relative to brokers at the farmgate, for both maize and pigeon pea-farming households. The study suggests that interventions that aimed at inclusion of smallholder farmers in more profitable markets could improve household welfare and reduce poverty among rural households.     

Contribution of parkland trees to farmers’ livelihoods: a case study from Mali

Native species of trees and shrubs contribute significantly to farmers' livelihoods by supplying food, medicinal products, fodder, and wood. In the case study reported in this article, this contribution to farmers' annual revenue varied from 26 per cent to 73 per cent, and was as high as US$ 650 a year for households for which agroforestry products were the primary source of revenue. Household consumption was not quantified in the study, but farmers' comments confirmed that native trees also played an important role in assuring food security, especially in the ‘hunger period’ when grain stores are low and farmers are waiting for the next harvest.     

Lessons of endogenous leadership in Nigeria: innovating to reduce waste and raise incomes in the cassava processing and goat-keeping systems

Agricultural innovations are increasingly emerging from African research scientists. This paper looks at an innovation developed by animal scientists at the University of Agriculture Abeokuta in Nigeria. They identified a method for drying cassava peels, which creates an income source for rural women, reduces environmental waste, and raises the income of goat herders by transforming the cassava waste into animal feed. Initially funded by a World Bank grant, this paper addresses the challenges of securing donor funding for local innovations and presents an argument for a new model of development that supports locally driven solutions to current development issues.     

From compliant to capable: balanced capacity development for local organisations

How to strengthen local capacity through donor-funded projects remains opaque. Using the European Centre for Development Policy Management's core capabilities model to examine a project engaging local organisations, we identify capabilities differentiating performance and gains from project participation. The studied organisations were often weak in capabilities important for successfully working with local governments. Some strengthened capacity, but improvements were concentrated in capabilities related to complying with donors’ requirements rather than capabilities enhancing performance. We question assumptions underlying programme designs based on Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's donor-country cooperation principles, and offer suggestions for balancing capacity gains to sustain independent local organisations.     

The effect of logistic services on the watermelon value chain in Tanzania

This article reports on a study that aimed to understand the effects for poverty reduction of the link between logistic services and cost of the watermelon value chain in Rufiji and Mkuranga districts in Tanzania. Structured questionnaires and FGDs were used to collect data from 251 respondents. Findings revealed that transport cost, storage cost, purchase cost, and logistics service have strong significant effect on the watermelon value chain cost. Based on the findings, the study recommended the use of affordable methods of storage, opening agro-input shops in villages, and the development of a favourable environment for watermelon businesses, to help reduce chain cost.     

Impact of microcredit on income,poverty, and economic vulnerability in Peninsular Malaysia

This article examines the effect of Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia's (AIM) microcredit programme on low-income households' income, poverty rate, and vulnerability in Peninsular Malaysia. This study employed a quasi-experimental approach, cross-sectional design, and stratified random sampling method. Findings indicated that participation in AIM's microcredit programme leads to an increase in household income and reduces both the poverty rate and level of economic vulnerability. AIM and policymakers, therefore, should focus on promoting a supportive environment to improve cooperation among participants by designing a dynamic and well-diversified microfinance programme and specialised skills-building training programme.     

Participatory research practice at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)

This study assessed the extent to which participatory methods had been used by CIMMYT, and how the scientists perceived them. Results suggest that participatory approaches at the Center were largely ‘functional’ – that is, aimed at improving the efficiency and relevance of research – and had in fact added value to the research efforts. The majority of projects surveyed also placed emphasis on building farmers' awareness. This is understandable if we think that the limiting factor in scientist–farmer exchange is the farmers' limited knowledge base. Thus, in situations such as marginal areas and in smallholder farming, exposure to new genotypes and best-bet management options would be a first requirement for effective interactions and implementation of participatory approaches.     

Causes of absenteeism at the secondary level in Jamaica: parents' perspectives

This article examines parents' views on the causes of students' absenteeism at the secondary level, using a sample of 221 parents from nine schools across Jamaica. The key factors identified as causes are little value for education, lack of resources, and factors within the immediate school environment. Apart from improvements to the school environment, the article underscores the need to provide employment-generating opportunities to enable parents to meet the needs of their children, and emphasises that efforts to address students' absenteeism must involve multi-agency partnerships including parents, community members, and social workers.     

Improving smallholder livestock farmers’ incomes through value chain financing in South Africa

Separating the commercialisation of agriculture from other programmes to improve access to formal credit for smallholder farmers is a source of dramatic failures of most programmes. Despite the popularity of value chain financing, livestock agriculture remains marginalised. This paper analyses the MAFISA-NERPO Livestock Credit Scheme, a scheme which provides value chain financial products in order to improve the cash incomes of smallholder farmers in South Africa. Evidence shows that more than 80% of participating farmers receive average annual incomes of US$30,000. This implies that this scheme has addressed those factors hindering effectiveness and efficiency of smallholder credit institutions, using value chain finance.     

Farmers,peanuts, and aflatoxins in Uganda: A gendered approach

This article describes a collaborative research for development project that used participatory methods to engage smallholder farmers in Uganda in post-harvest aflatoxin management. It is based primarily on qualitative research with peanut growers tracing ‘the path of the peanut’ through their hand-drawn maps and journal writing. By focusing on everyday life and including recipes and drawings, this research encouraged women's participation and emphasised women's roles. A unique partnership among universities, women's organisations, and farmers created an environment of mutual learning and produced a book documenting food preparation and other post-harvest practices as part of a study and capacity-building effort on peanuts and aflatoxins.     

Participatory system dynamics modelling for dairy value chain development in Nicaragua

The use of system dynamics tools can add valuable insights when identifying and evaluating priorities for pro-poor value chain upgrading. However, to better understand the complex systems in agricultural value chains and to develop useful models, a participatory modelling process is important. This article highlights the group model building process of the dairy value chain in Matiguás, Nicaragua, one of a few examples of participatory model building in developing countries. The results confirm several benefits with participatory system dynamics modelling, including team learning, a greater understanding of the value of modelling, and a tool for decision-making and priority setting.     

Microcredit and development: a multi-level examination of women’s participation in microfinance institutions

International organisations promote microcredit as a tool for socio-economic development by targeting women’s entrepreneurial capabilities. There is limited research, however, on the variation in women’s participation in microcredit in developing nations. To understand this variation, this article examines the relationship between a country’s gender equality levels and women’s microcredit participation. The results indicate that participation is higher when loans are small; however, with increases in gender equality levels, participation decreases. Women in countries with higher gender inequality are limited to very small loans and questionable economic improvements, suggesting that microcredit needs to be utilised contextually to be an effective developmental tool.     

Benefits and challenges of micro-enterprise participation: women's cottage industry in Kaimosi,Kenya

This article investigates the perspectives of Kenyan women in the Kaimosi cottage industry regarding the benefits and challenges of producing craft commodities for the global marketplace. Utilising qualitative methods, the research provides an understanding of issues the women faced in producing and marketing goods and offers insights for NGOs into some pitfalls for the sustainability of micro-enterprises. The women asserted that participation in the micro-enterprise had improved their family's economic well-being, helped finance their children's education, and improved their community status. This supports the literature that has found that women's involvement in micro-enterprises reduces poverty and improves well-being.     

Evolution of input supply and service hubs in dairy development at Ada'a milk shed in Ethiopia

Efficient input supply and service delivery may call for a hub approach where all the necessary inputs and services are supplied in a coordinated manner, either by a single supplier or by several and separate entities in a given geographical location accessible to beneficiaries. Based on experience from Ada'a milk shed in central Ethiopia, this paper assesses the evolution of input supply and service provision in the dairy sub-sector, focusing on coordination and the degree of competition among different actors at different levels in the value chain over time. Data were collected from key value chain actors engaged in provision of input supply and output marketing services in Ada'a milk shed. The major lesson is that the development of coordinated input supply and service delivery by different business entities or under a single business entity may not emerge at once, but through a gradual evolution. This depends on the level of demand for the inputs and services as determined by the degree of demand for milk and milk products, and the economies of scale input suppliers and service providers could attain from the expansion of demands for these inputs and services. Moreover, at the early stage of a hub development, collective actions and integration of services and marketing within a business organisation could be the main strategy to attain efficiency. But, once the demand for inputs and services has grown, competition among different entities will lead to more efficient input supply and service delivery. In general, where there is an increasing demand for inputs and services, there is a faster development of input supply and service provision by private actors and collective actions in a more competitive way. Role of the public sector could change gradually from provision of inputs and services to coordination, capacity building, quality control, and regulation.

Évolution des plateformes d'approvisionnement en intrants et de services dans le développement du secteur de la production laitière dans la laiterie d'Ada'a, en Éthiopie

Pour une fourniture d'intrants et une prestation de services efficaces, il peut se révéler nécessaire de mettre en ?uvre une approche axée sur une plateforme dans le cadre de laquelle tous les intrants et services nécessaires sont fournis de manière coordonnée, soit par un fournisseur unique soit par plusieurs entités séparées, dans un lieu donné accessible aux bénéficiaires. Sur la base de l'expérience de la laiterie d'Ada'a, en Éthiopie, cet article évalue l'évolution de la fourniture d'intrants et de la prestation de services dans le sous-secteur laitier, en se concentrant sur la coordination et sur le degré de concurrence entre différents acteurs et à différents niveaux de la chaîne de valeur au fil du temps. Des données ont été recueillies auprès d'acteurs clés de la chaîne de valeur actifs dans la fourniture d'intrants et dans la prestation de services de commercialisation de la production dans la laiterie d'Ada'a. Le principal enseignement est que le développement d'une fourniture d'intrants et d'une prestation de services coordonnées par différentes entreprises ou dans le cadre d'une entité commerciale unique peut ne pas avoir lieu tout d'un coup, mais au fil d'une évolution progressive. Cela dépend du degré de demande concernant les intrants et les services, tel que déterminé par le degré de demande de lait et produits laitiers, et par les économies d'échelle que les fournisseurs d'intrants et les prestataires de services pourraient obtenir grâce à l'expansion de la demande de ces intrants et services. De plus, au stade initial de la mise en ?uvre d'une plateforme, les actions collectives et l'intégration des services et de la commercialisation dans une organisation commerciale pourraient constituer la principale stratégie pour arriver à l'efficacité. Mais, une fois que la demande en intrants et en services s'est accrue, la concurrence entre différentes entités engendrera une fourniture d'intrants et une prestation de services plus efficaces. En général, lorsqu'il y a une demande croissante d'intrants et de services, il se produit un développement plus rapide de la fourniture d'intrants et de la prestation de services par des acteurs privés dans une optique plus concurrentielle. Le rôle du secteur public pourrait évoluer progressivement, de la fourniture d'intrants et de services à un rôle de coordination, de renforcement des capacités, de contrôle de la qualité et de réglementation.

Evolución de la oferta de insumos y de los centros de servicios en el desarrollo de lácteos en la cuenca lechera de Ada en Etiopía

Para llevar a cabo de manera eficiente la oferta de insumos y la entrega de servicios puede requerirse un centro de servicios cuya ubicación sea accesible a los beneficiarios, a partir del cual los mismos sean suministrados de manera coordinada, ya sea a través de un proveedor único, o bien, a través de varios entes separados. Apoyándose en la experiencia de la cuenca lechera de Ada, localizada en el centro de Etiopía, el presente artículo valora la evolución de la oferta de insumos y de la entrega de servicios en el subsector de lácteos, centrándose en la coordinación y en el grado de competitividad mostrado durante varios años por distintos actores ubicados en diferentes estratos de la cadena de valor. La información fue recopilada de actores clave de la cadena de valor en la cuenca lechera de Ada, quienes proveen insumos y servicios de comercialización de productos. El aprendizaje más importante que ha dejado esta experiencia es que: el desarrollo de la oferta de insumos y de la entrega de servicios – realizadas de manera coordinada por distintas empresas o por una sola – puede no surgir inmediatamente, sino después de una lenta evolución. Ello depende del nivel de demanda de insumos o servicios que, a su vez, depende tanto de la demanda de leche y de productos lácteos como de las economías de escala que pudieran obtener sus proveedores a partir de la expansión de la demanda de estos productos. Asimismo, durante las etapas iniciales del desarrollo de un centro de servicios, las acciones colectivas, la integración de servicios y la comercialización centradas en una sola empresa, podrían constituir la estrategia más importante para mejorar la eficiencia. Sin embargo, una vez que la demanda de insumos y servicios haya crecido, la competencia entre distintas entidades producirá una oferta y una entrega de los mismos más eficiente. En general, en aquellos lugares en que exista una demanda creciente, habrá un desarrollo más rápido de la oferta de insumos y de la entrega de servicios por parte de los actores privados, además de acciones colectivas más competitivas. En consecuencia, el rol del sector público podría modificarse gradualmente, pasando de ser proveedor de insumos y servicios a ser la instancia que coordine, fortalezca capacidades y vigile el control de calidad y las normas.

Evolução dos centros de abastecimento de insumos e serviços no desenvolvimento do setor de laticínio da região produtora de leite de Ada'a, na Etiópia

Uma oferta eficiente de insumos e de serviços pode demandar um centro em que todos os insumos e serviços necessários sejam ofertados de maneira coordenada, seja através de um único fornecedor ou de várias entidades separadas em uma dada área geográfica acessível aos beneficiários. Com base na experiência da região produtora de leite de Ada'a situada na região central da Etiópia, este artigo avalia a evolução da oferta de insumos e de serviços no sub-setor de laticínios, concentrando-se na coordenação e grau de competição entre diferentes agentes em níveis diferentes da cadeia de valores no decorrer do tempo. Os dados foram coletados a partir de agentes-chave da cadeia de valores engajados na oferta de insumos e serviços de marketing na região produtora de leite de Ada'a. A principal lição é que o desenvolvimento da oferta coordenada de insumos e de serviços através de diferentes entidades empresariais ou através de uma única entidade empresarial pode não surgir de uma só vez, mas sim ter uma evolução gradual. Isto depende do nível de demanda dos insumos e serviços, que é determinado pelo grau de demanda de leite e de produtos lácteos, e as economias de escala que os fornecedores de insumos e de serviços podem obter a partir da expansão de demandas por estes insumos e serviços. Além disto, na fase inicial do desenvolvimento de um centro, ações coletivas e integração de serviços e marketing dentro de uma organização empresarial podem ser a estratégia principal para se obter eficiência. Porém, após a demanda por insumos e serviços ter crescido, a competição entre entidades diferentes levará a uma oferta de insumos e de serviço mais eficiente. Em geral, quando há uma demanda crescente por insumos e serviços, há um desenvolvimento mais rápido na oferta de insumos e serviços por agentes privados e ações coletivas mais competitivas. O papel do setor público poderia mudar gradualmente da oferta de insumos e serviços para a coordenação, capacitação, controle de qualidade e regulação.     

Integrating participatory elements into conventional research projects: measuring the costs and benefits

Until recently, participatory and conventional approaches to agricultural research have been regarded as more or less antagonistic. This article presents evidence from three sub-projects of a Thai–Vietnamese–German collaborative research programme on ‘Sustainable Land Use and Rural Development in Mountainous Regions of Southeast Asia’, in which participatory elements were successfully integrated into conventional agricultural research as add-on activities. In all three sub-projects the costs of studying local knowledge or enhancing farmers' experimentation consisted of additional local personnel, opportunity costs of participating farmers' time, and travel costs. However, these participatory elements of the research projects constituted only a small fraction of the total costs. It may be concluded that conventional agricultural research can be complemented by participatory components in a cost-effective way, while producing meaningful benefits in terms of creating synergies by blending scientific and local knowledge, scaling up micro-level data, and highlighting farmers' constraints affecting technology adoption.     

Strengthening public health supply chains in Ethiopia: PEPFAR-supported expansion of access and availability

When the US President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR)-supported Supply Chain Management System (SCMS) programme began working in Ethiopia in 2006, the estimated population of people living with HIV exceeded one million, while only 24,000 were on treatment and only 50 treatment sites were in operation. SCMS and other key partners entered into this context to support the Ethiopian government in significantly strengthening the public health supply chain system, with the aim of increasing the availability and accessibility of pharmaceutical products. The country now has 1,047 treatment sites and is nearing complete treatment coverage. This article discusses how priorities were set among many competing challenges from 2006 until 2014, and how the four-step strategy of build, operate, transfer, and optimise has resulted in a successful partnership.     

Operationalising participatory research and farmer-to-farmer extension: the Kamayoq in Peru

While rural poverty is endemic in the Andean region, structural adjustment programmes have led to a dismemberment of agricultural research and extension services so that they are unable to serve the needs of smallholder farmers. The NGO Practical Action has been working in the Andes to address farmers' veterinary and agriculture needs. The work has included the training of farmer-to-farmer extension agents, known locally as Kamayoq. The Kamayoq have encouraged farmer participatory research, and local farmers pay them for their veterinary and crop advisory services in cash or in kind. The Kamayoq model is largely an unsubsidised approach to the provision of appropriate technical services and encouragement of farmer participation. The model also illustrates that, in the context of encouraging farmer participation and innovation, NGOs have advantages over research organisations because of their long-term presence, ability to establish trust with local farmers, and their emphasis on social and community processes.     

Determinants of people's participation: a study of rural West Bengal,India

This article considers the determinants of people's participation in local level decision-making spaces in rural West Bengal, India. It defines participation from the perspectives of attending meetings, raising issues, making complaints, and making contributions. The results from a sampled household survey in East Midnapore district of West Bengal indicate that better awareness, increase in land holdings, organisational membership, and political affiliation tend to improve participation. Households showing livelihood dependency and entitlement, and belonging to socially and economically weaker sections are more likely to participate. However, the results point towards the possibility of ‘elite capture’ and ‘clientelism’ in participatory spaces.     

Customary and contemporary resources for women's empowerment in Bangladesh

In Bangladesh, dramatic social and economic changes are transforming historical forms of patriarchy with various impacts on pathways to women's empowerment. We hypothesised contemporary resources would be more strongly associated with women's empowerment, as reflected in their influence in family decisions. In cross-sectional analysis, we found the contemporary resources of employment and membership in NGOs were most strongly and consistently associated with women's influence in family decisions. Education was only modestly associated, as were customary resources, including age and fertility. Programmatic efforts to enhance women's empowerment should consider the rapidly changing environment and the importance of women's economic participation.