An Assessment of a Drastically Changed Federal Workplace in the United States

Abstract

Written by four experienced government employees, this article discusses many alarming changes that have been forced on the Federal government workplace over the past 20 years. The article identifies actions by elected and appointed officials that have greatly changed and weakened a workplace that was a model for America. Several attributes of the Federal workplace of the past and of the present are compared and contrasted.     

Actions by Political Officials Have Weakened the Federal Government Workplace: Downsizing Has Cut Lower Level Workers the Most and Replacing Federal Employees with Private Corporations Costs Much More,Creating the Need for Immediate Reform

Abstract

The authors of this paper are four practitioners each of whom has many years of experience working in the Federal government and also has pursued doctoral studies in public or business administration. Three ideas developed in this paper are that: (1) the Federal civil service has been changed from being a model workplace to a much less desirable one; (2) although downsizing has been touted as an efficiency and economy measure, lower level employees experienced the most cuts and (3) the current practice of replacing Federal employees with private corporations costs much more. Over the past two decades private sector workplaces in the United States, and now the Federal government workplace, have experienced so much change that previous theories, concepts, models, and expectations no longer hold. Just as private industry workplaces have been changed by downsizing, reorganizations, mergers, elimination of middle management, and outsourcing, so, too, has the Federal government workplace been fundamentally altered. Reducing the number of government workers, replacing Federal employees with private firms, increasing the number of officials with political agendas, and using harsh personnel management practices have transfigured the Federal workplace. Examples of factors that have contributed to a changed workplace include: the Civil Service Reform Act which replaced the Civil Service Commission with the Office of Personnel Management; importing private sector approaches into the government, e.g., the Grace Commission; replacing the Civil Service Retirement System with the Federal Employees Retirement System; pressure to downsize and privatize; and many elements of the National Performance Review and Government Performance and Results Act. Now that the metamorphosis away from the traditional Civil Service borne of the Pendleton Act is nearly complete (although the new paradigm is not entirely clear), questions about the effects of a changed government workplace are being raised. Some people believe the metamorphosis is from a caterpillar to a butterfly, while others think the opposite. Whether the changed Federal government is a thing of beauty or a distasteful organism will be determined over time by observations and assessments of the effects of the change. These effects will be both internal to the government workplace, itself, and external to it, involving the products, services, outputs, and outcomes it produces. This paper begins by describing some of the politically mandated changes that have altered the very foundation of the Federal government workplace over the past 20 years and made it a much less desirable place to work. Next, some of the effects of two politically mandated changes are examined: (1) downsizing or reducing the number of Americans who can work for their government and (2) contracting out or replacing government workers with private corporations. Political officials have told the media and the American public that these changes were needed to improve the government's efficiency, effectiveness, and economy. It has been suggested that these initiatives will reduce costs. However, an examination of downsizing and contracting out shows the opposite effect. While overall the Federal government has fewer employees now than in 1961, the statistics indicate that lower level employees have been cut the most:

• The number of secretaries decreased by 39% between 1992 and 1998.

• The blue collar workforce is down 40% since 1982, e.g., Supply Clerical and Technician (?35%), Accounting Technician (?24%), and Electronics Mechanic (?41%).

• Between 1993 and 1998 the number of GS‐1 to GS‐10 employees fell from 767,000 to 594,000.

• In 1983 the number of GS‐1 to GS‐10 workers exceeded GS‐11 to GS‐15 by nearly 300,000, while in 1997 GS‐11 to GS‐15 outnumbered the lower level workers by 44,000.

Although authoritative cost comparison studies are difficult to conduct because top officials have made little provision to collect information on the cost of contracting with private firms or the number of contract employees, available information indicates that it is much more expensive than using government employees. The contracting out we are talking about is not the usual kind—building ships or planes, or acquiring computer systems or special expertise not available in the government. Rather, it is contracting with private firms to do jobs that are currently being performed by Federal employees. Not satisfied with the level at which firms are being substituted for Federal employees, actions by political officials have created an environment which now favors private corporations and where they can be given work at top management's discretion, often regardless of cost. In fact, today most contracting out is done without the use of Circular A‐76 Cost Comparison Studies. There is empirical and logical evidence that shows that replacing government employees with private corporations is more expensive. For example, a study by the Department of the Army documents what people close to contracting have always known—that it is far more expensive to contract with a private firm for work than to have Federal employees do it. Logically, the government incurs additional items of cost when replacing Federal employees with private corporations. First, there is the profit that goes to the firm. Second, there is the firm's overhead which pays for corporate offices, staffs, and CEOs. Third, there are the costs of the contracting and award process and of contract administration and management. Although the worker on a government contract may be paid a little less than a government worker, the cost of the worker is only a third to a half of what the government pays the firm. Thus, replacing government workers with private firms usually costs far more and it is not unusual for it to cost two to three times as much. This paper partly is based on the authors' long experience in the Federal government. It is not based on the organizations in which they are currently employed.     

An Alternative Understanding of Political Participation: Challenging the Myth of Political Indifference in Hong Kong

Abstract

The characterization of Hong Kong's political culture as one of indifference deserves further examination as the inquiries conducted by proponents of the indifference framework have all used a narrow definition of political participation. This paper begins with a critique of the inherent narrowness of orthodox definitions of political participation: political participation as acts making demands on a government; as lawful activities; and as activities vis‐a‐vis one government. Contrast these assumptions, the author contends that political participation needs to be understood as activities that include both making demands on and showing support for a government, as well as both lawful and unlawful activities. Furthermore, the author refutes the one‐government‐locus theme of the orthodox concept and proposes a three‐government‐loci theme that is more relevant to the historical experience of the colonial Hong Kong. The political relevance of the social domain and its implications on broadening the definition of political participation are discussed. Finally, the author argues for the importance of considering discursive participation as a form of political participation in Hong Kong.     

Leadership Styles as Perceived by Career Senior Service Executives

Abstract

This study identifies the prevailing leadership styles of career Senior Executive Service (SES) members of the Federal Government. This study also determines if an association exits between SES member's self‐perceived leadership style and personal characteristics, such as gender, years in the Federal Service, and highest academic degree earned. The study population consists of 6395 career SES members. A random sample of 364 career SES members was selected. The selected group was asked to respond to a demographic data questionnaire and the Styles of Leadership Survey (SLS). Over 34% of the sample completed the instrument and data questionnaire. This study reveals that Strategic Leadership Style (5/5) is the dominant self‐perceived leadership style of career SES members. The personal characteristics of gender, years employed in the Federal Government, and educational attainment were identified as being significant factors influencing leadership styles of Federal Government executives.     

The Relationship Between State Government Performance and State Quality of Life

Abstract

This article examines the relationship between government performance and quality of life in the American states. We contend that the management capacity of state governments should have direct, tangible impacts on the overall social and economic well‐being of state citizenry. In order to test this idea, we examine the influence of state management capacity (using the 1999 Government Performance Project grades), alongside other economic and political variables, on two prominent measures of state quality of life—The Morgan Quitno “Most Livable State” Index and State Policy Reports' (SPP) “Camelot Index.” We find that both state economic conditions and governmental policy priorities have significant impacts on state performance levels. But, our results clearly indicate that the management capacity of state governments also contributes directly to improving the overall quality of life for state citizens.     

Facilitating officer/councillor relationships — Meeting the Post‐Widdicombe challenge

Democracy Rediscovered, Margaret Simey, Pluto Press, 1988, pp. 138, £14.95.

Stalker, John Stalker, Harrap, 1988, pp. 288, £12.95 (hardback).

Public Sector Pay. Review of 1987: Prospects for 1988, KPMG Peat Marwick McLintock, Public Finance Foundation, IDS Public Sector Unit, 1988, £25;

Salaries and Benefits in Local Government Practice, IDS Public Sector Unit, KPMG Peat Marwick McLintock, 1988.

Urban Development Corporations: Six years in London's Docklands, Docklands Consultative Committee, (Unit 4 Stratford Office Village, 4 Romford Rd, London E15 4EA), 1988, pp. 44, £5 + p&;p.

Public Policy‐Making for Local Government, J. A. Chandler, Croom Helm Studies in Public Policy‐Making, Croom Helm, 1988, pp. 202, £25.00 (hardback) and £9.95 (paperback).

Local Government in the Community, Colin Mellors and Nigel Copperthwaite, pp. 233 + pp. 6 select bibliography, ICSA Publications Ltd., Fitzwilliam House, Cambridge, 1987, £14.95 (paperback).     

The anti‐terrorism act of 1987—An update on the controversy surrounding efforts to close down PLO offices in the U.S.

Abstract

The basic intent of Congress in enacting the Anti‐Terrorism Act of 1987 was not to deprive supporters of the Palestinian Liberation Organization of expressing their opinions but to induce the PLO to renounce the use of terrorism. By reaffirming United States abhorrence of terrorism, the supporters of this legislation also hope to encourage the emergence of Palestinian leaders who are dedicated to a peaceful resolution of the Arab‐Israel conflict. While the United States Government and major Jewish organizations have supported the closing of the PLO's Washington‐based Palestine Information Office, there has been considerable questioning in these same circles of the wisdom of the Congressional action to close the PLO's Observer Mission to the United Nations. This action was challenged by the United Nations, and the International Court of Justice asked the United States to resolve this matter through arbitration. The Reagan Administration finally accepted a Federal court ruling that the law did not require closing the U.N. Mission.     

Reduction in Force—Benefit or Detriment? A Look at Some Tangible and Intangible Results of Federal Sector Reductions in Force (RIF)

Abstract

Through a review of some of the tangible and intangible results of Federal reduction in force (RIF), this article demonstrates that while the use of RIF procedures has resulted in a smaller Federal civilian workforce, it is a cumbersome and expensive process which negatively impacts the reputation of the Federal government as an employer. At one time, the Federal government was a model, progressive employer. Repeated RIFs have made the government a less desirable employer. This is an important loss, not only to Federal employees, but to the entire American workplace. If government cannot attract and retain a quality workforce in a stable environment, then critical programs cannot help but be negatively impacted.     

US Performance-Based Laws: Information Technology and E-Government Reporting Requirements

Abstract

Electronic government (e-government) is the use of information technology (IT) and the Internet to transform federal agency effectiveness—including efficiency and service quality. Several US laws, including the Paperwork Reduction Act, the Computer Security Act, the Clinger-Cohen Act, the Government Information Security Reform Act (GISRA), and the E-Government Act, contain IT and e-government performance-reporting requirements. For each, the author reviews the legislative history and then focuses on the specific requirements for reporting to Congress, the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), and agency heads. The author concludes that OMB’s new Office of Electronic Government needs to evaluate whether performance requirements could be improved through (1) consolidation, thereby providing a more comprehensive discussion of agency IT and e-government issues, and (2) addressing broader issues, such as an across-government focus on both national and international IT issues.     

Book Notes

Encyclopaedia of the Third World. George Thomas Kurian, London: Mansell. 1979. 1694 pp. £40.00.

Year Book of Labour Statistics 1978. International Labour Office Geneva: ILO. 1978. 675 pp. S Fr 95.00.

Documents of the Gatherings of Nonaligned Countries 1961–78. Medjunarodna Politika, Belgrade: Jugoslavenska Stvarnost. 1978. 274 pp.

Strategic Survey. International Institute of Strategic Studies, London :IISS. 1979. 140 pp. £2.25 pb.

The Far East and Australasia 1978–9. London: Europa. 1978. 1311 pp. £26.50.

Britain and Latin America: an annual review of British‐Latin American relations 1979. Latin American Bureau, London: LAB.1979. 189 pp. £2.50 pb.

Latin American Annual Review and the Caribbean 1979. World of Information, Saffron Walden, England: WoI. 1978. 222 pp. £11.50.

Register of Research on Trade and Development Issues. UNCTAD, New York. UNCTAD. 1978. 96 pp.

Register of Development Research Projects in Africa: liaison bulletin. OECD, Paris: OECD Development Centre. 1979. 106 pp. $6.50.

Landsat Index Atlas of the Developing Countries. Washington DC: The World Bank. £6.25.

African Studies: a handbook for teachers. Edited by Margaret Killingray, London: School of Oriental and African Studies. 1979. 81 pp. £2.00.

Women in the Development Process: a selected bibliography on women in the sub‐Saharan Africa and Latin America. S S Saulniers & A Rakowski, Austin, Texas: University of Texas. 1977. 287 pp. £4.90.

Women and World Development: an annotated bibliography. Mayra Buvinic, Washington DC: Overseas Development Council. 1976. 162 pp. $2.50.

Development as if Women Mattered: an annotated bibliography with a Third World focus. May Rihani, Washington DC: Overseas Development Council. 1978. 137 pp. $3.00.

America in Asia: research guide on US economic activity in Pacific Asia. Asia‐North America Communications Center, Hong Kong: ANACC. 1979. 165 pp. $10.00 pb.

Changing Approaches to Population Problems. Margaret Wolfson, Paris: OECD Development Centre. 1979. 193 pp. $9.50 pb.

Planning for Growing Populations. Edited by Robert Cassen and Margaret Wolfson, Paris: OECD Development Centre. 1979. 227 pp. $11.50 pb.

Food Aid for Development. Harmut Schneider, Paris: OECD Development Centre. 1979. 130 pp. $6.75 pb.

Traveller's Guide to Africa 1980. Edited by Richard Synge, London: International Communications. 1979 (third edn). 400 pp. £5.95.

Traveller's Guide to the Middle East 1980. Edited by Richard Synge, London: International Communications. 1979 (second edn). 300 pp. £5.95.

Arabic Historical Writing 1975 and 1976: an annotated bibliography. Fawzi Abdulrazak, London: Mansell. 1979. 210 pp.

Calligraphy in the Arts of the Muslim World. Anthony Welsh, London: Dawson. 1979. 216 pp. £15.00.

Big Business and the Mass Media. Bernard Rubin, Lexington, Massachussets: Lexington. 1977. 185 pp.

Making News: a study in the construction of reality. Gaye Tuchman, New York: The Free Press. 1978. 244 pp. £9.75.

India: resources and development. B L C Johnson, London: Heinemann Educational. 1979. 211 pp. £6.90.     

The Management of Citizen Participation in Taiwan: A Case Study of Taipei City Government's Citizen Complaints System

Abstract

Citizen participation is one of the core values of democracy. Democratization means an increase in citizen participation in public affairs. However, the issue of democratization is rarely studied in the field of public administration. In this article, we use the Taipei City Government (TCG) Citizen Complaints System to illustrate some tensions relating to citizen participation in a newly democratizing country. We interviewed the TCG officials to piece together the puzzle of how the citizen complaints system works. Furthermore, we conducted a survey on how each channel and media is used by citizens to file their complaints. Then, we focused on the development of the Taipei City Mayor's e‐mail box to see how the tension between participation and cost is handled by utilizing newly emerging information technology. We then evaluate these developments in terms of publicity, accessibility, and accountability suggested by Senevirante and Cracknell (Seneviratne, M.; Cracknell, S. Consumer complaints in public sector services. Public Admin. 1988, 66, 181–193). Accordingly, we propose suggestions for improvement from these three aspects for TCG and other governments as well to establish a citizen complaints system that substantiates democracy.     

E-Government to Combat Corruption: The Case of Seoul Metropolitan Government

Abstract

The Seoul Metropolitan Government adopted a reform measure to combat corruption, called the “OPEN” system, an acronym for the “Online Procedures ENhancement for civil applications,” in January 1999, and the new system went into operation in April 1999. The OPEN system is a Web-based internet service to transact civil applications for permits, registrations, procurements, contracts, and approvals submitted online by citizens. It places transparency and accountability in the core of the management system of civil applications by providing open access for anybody, anytime, and anywhere to file applications and monitor the review and approval processes on real time online until the decision on the applications is finalized according to the timetable set by the officials in charge. The citizens accepted the OPEN system instantly and the users of the service and visitors to the site have grown rapidly. More importantly, both the citizens who used the system and the city officials who were involved in managing the system tended to have favorable opinions on its corruption control effect as attested by the survey findings. The OPEN system is an e-government innovation with a rich potential for diffusion, for corruption in government (or in business as well) is believed to be prevalent and it neither respects geographical boundaries nor discriminates cultural differences.     

The Extent,Nature, and Consequences of School Victimization: A Review of Surveys and Recent Research

ABSTRACT

The authors present a comprehensive overview of the current literature on the extent, correlates, and consequences of school-based incidents of victimization in the United States. The primary sources of data on crime and victimization in schools, including periodic, nationally representative surveys, are reviewed. These data are used to describe the scope and types of victimization most frequently encountered by students while in school, as well as historic shifts in trends. The authors also summarize the main correlates of school victimization both at the individual and school levels; describe the health, psychological, behavioral, and peer-network consequences of school victimization; and discuss the factors that can mitigate its consequences for youths. The discussion concludes by outlining future directions for this important line of research.     

Government Study Commissions and County Home Rule

Abstract

Most of the state action on county home rule occurred in the 1970s and most of the 149 charters were adopted in the 1970s. Although there is still interest in home rule, it is largely confined to a few states and specific counties. In Pennsylvania there are six county home rule charters, and five of the six were approved in the 1970s. Only home rule for Allegheny County has been approved since then. Allegheny County's success came in 1998 after two unsuccessful efforts in the 1970s. This article is a study of Allegheny County's efforts to obtain home rule focusing on the charter writing process. The author contends that the charter writing phase has a major impact on whether the change effort is successful. He applies a framework to study this phase of the home rule effort. The framework consists of three models to categorize members by their orientation on the kinds of changes they seek. In addition to the models that are used to categorize members by their change preferences, a typology is applied to categorize members by their motivations and personal agendas to aid in explaining their behavior and voting on charter provisions. How the government study commission is chosen has an impact on the type of charter recommended and ultimately on the success of the change effort. Two of the charter commissions were elected, and the successful commission was appointed. A different model dominated each commission. The author concludes that an appointed commission and state parameters on the type of charter that could be recommended to the voters were major factors in the success of the change effort.     

Civil Society,the Economy,and Educational Assistance in Former Soviet Republics

Abstract

Liberal democracies throughout the world are committed to civil society in support of market economics and democratic politics. Through educational assistance programs, the U.S. government demonstrates this commitment by attempting to reinvigorate civil society in former Soviet republics and Eastern European countries in support of their economic and political reform efforts. Of particular interest are the Community Connections and Partners in Education programs conducted by the U.S. Department of State for interns from the former Soviet republics or now Eurasia, who participate in business and other professional internships in various locations in the U.S., including Northern Alabama.     

Changing Municipalities in the Information age

Abstract

Political leadership at the local level has attracted growing attention in recent years in parallel with reforms of local government and of the municipal administration, as well as the debate on a shift from government to governance. Considering the power triangle of (i) the mayor, (ii) the municipal administration (executive officers) and (iii) the council, it is surprising that the latter has gained little interest so far. This article analyses how the roles of local councils as representative bodies are assessed by mayors from seventeen European countries and how differences in the perception of councils can be explained. Can differences be explained by institutional settings, the notion of the mayor towards the role of political parties or by the kind of interaction between the mayor and the council – or are specific local conditions and idiosyncratic personal factors crucial?     

Identifying and Coping with Fiscal Emergencies in Ohio Local Governments

Abstract

This study examines the reasons fiscal emergencies occur in Ohio local governments and the strategies that local governments use to recover. In Ohio, fiscal emergencies have regularly occurred predominantly at the local level. This study aims to reveal the internal process that both bring on and ameliorates fiscal emergencies. Previous studies failed to differentiate between fiscal stress and fiscal emergencies and did not include the role of the Ohio Fiscal Emergency Law in assisting local governments in restoring long term fiscal health. This study finds fiscal emergencies in Ohio were caused by: (1) the increased costs associated with unfunded state-mandated programs and, (2) major economical downturns brought on by local plant closings. Local governments were found to have responded in the short run by strategies such as targeted expenditure cuts and in the long run by increased the use of economic development.     

What Foster the Climate for Merit?: Test of a Mediation Model

ABSTRACT

The failure of performance management in the public sector can be conceived as the failure to create the right climate for merit. This study proposes a mediation model explaining howorganizational climate for merit can be fostered. The analysis of the 2015 Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey reveals that constructive use of effective performance feedback and encouraging participation will help create a climate for merit and that such associations were mediated by organizational justice perception and trust toward their supervisor.     

Intergovernmental Agreements in Contemporary Russia

ABSTRACT

The paper discusses the evolution and current forms of agreements between federal, regional and municipal governments, as well as between the constituent units of the Russian Federation and municipalities. It analyses the problems and prospects of using these regulatory instruments. The purposes of this paper are to examine the current context of making intergovernmental agreements in Russia, to provide a comprehensive vision of contemporary state of this instrument of shaping intergovernmental relations, and to assess the prospects for their further practical use in the Russian Federation.     

Technological Innovation and Its Impact on Public Sector Efficiency and Performance: Aerial Imagery in Property Tax Assessment Administration

ABSTRACT

Technological innovations can help public organizations deliver higher quality public goods and services at lower average costs. While a considerable literature exploring the determinants of technology adoption and diffusion exists, much less is known on whether technology innovations improve public sector outputs. This study investigates the impact of high-resolution, oblique aerial imagery, an increasingly common technology used by local governments in the US, on the inspection efficiency and quality of property assessment administration. Aerial imagery is often argued to be a low-cost substitute to in-person inspections of property. Drawing on data from 2013 through 2017 for property assessing districts in Texas, aerial imagery use is found to improve the rate at which properties are inspected as well as improve the quality of assessments. The results further provide evidence that investments in aerial imagery are best justified on budgetary grounds rather than as a means to improve organizational performance.