Resilience and Vulnerability in Adolescents: Genetic Influences on Differential Response to Risk for Delinquency

Prior research has identified a vast number of correlates for delinquent behavior during adolescence, yet a considerable number of errors in prediction remain. These errors suggest that behavioral development among a portion of youths is not well understood, with some exhibiting resilience and others a heightened vulnerability to risks. Examining cases that do not confirm prediction outcomes provides an opportunity to achieve a greater understanding of the relationships between risk factors and delinquency, which can be used to improve theoretical explanations of behavior. This study explores the contribution of genetic and environmental factors to differences in individual responses to cumulative risk for delinquency among a sample of adolescent twins (N = 784 pairs, 49 % female) in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. The results indicate that additive genetic and unique environmental factors significantly contribute to variation in responses to cumulative risk across 14 risk factors spanning individual, familial, and environmental domains. When analyzed separately, the majority of the difference between vulnerable youths and the overall population was attributed to genetic influences, while differences between resilient youths and the population were primarily attributed to environmental influences. The findings illustrate the importance of examining both genetic and environmental influences in order to enhance explanations of adolescent offending.     

Does Mother Know Best? Adolescent and Mother Reports of Impulsivity and Subsequent Delinquency

Although impulsivity is one of the strongest psychological predictors of crime, it is unclear how well impulsivity, measured at a specific moment in adolescence, predicts criminal behavior months or years into the future. The present study investigated how far into the future self-reports and parents’ reports of a youth’s impulsivity predicted whether he engaged in illegal behavior, whether one reporter’s assessment was more predictive than the other’s, and whether there is value in obtaining multiple reports. Data were obtained from a 6-year longitudinal study of adjudicated juvenile offenders (n = 701 mother-son dyads). Youth (m = 15.93 years old; sd = 1.14) and their mothers independently reported on adolescents’ impulsivity at the initial assessment. We examined the prospective correlation of these measures with illegal behavior, assessed by official records of arrests and youths’ self-reports of offending across the 72-month study period. Youths’ and mothers’ reports of the adolescents’ impulsivity were weakly, but significantly, correlated with one another. Furthermore, mothers’ ratings of their sons’ impulsivity predicted arrest up to 6 years into the future, whereas youths’ reports did not significantly predict arrest beyond 30 months. With respect to youths’ self-reports of offending, mothers’ ratings of impulsivity again predicted farther into the future (as late as 6 years later) than did youths’ self-reports of impulsivity, which were not predictive beyond 4 years. However, across the first 4 years, youths’ self-reports of impulsivity explained more variance in self-reported offending than did mothers’ ratings. The results underscore the endurance of the predictive utility of an assessment of impulsivity and the importance (and accuracy) of parents’ reports of developmental constructs, even when their children are adolescents.     

Peers,parents, and adolescent drug use in a rural community: A two-wave panel study

This study examined the relative influence of changes in orientations to ward peers and parents on the drug-use patterns of a panel of rural youths. It was hypothesized that, when the changes in orientations that occurred over a three-year period of time were evaluated, the level of involvement with either alcohol or marijuana would be highest for those youths experiencing movement toward positions sympathetic to the use of drugs. The data analysis revealed that after three years there was greater distance between youths and their parents on the subject of drugs, and that those youths who experienced the greatest movement were also the most heavily involved with drugs. The single best predictor of the use rate for either type of drug was the level of past use, followed by changes in the level of drug-related conflict with parents. Among the peer-based measures, changes in the frequency of both pro- and antidrug-use discussions were found to make a significant contribution only in the case of marijuana use.A version of this paper was presented at the annual meetings of the Society for the Study of Social Problems, August 1985, Washington, D.C.He received his Ph.D. from the University of Montana. His research interests include death and dying in American jails and professional socialization in criminal justice vocations.     

The Development of Criminal Style in Adolescence and Young Adulthood: Separating the Lemmings from the Loners

Despite broad consensus that most juvenile crimes are committed with peers, many questions regarding developmental and individual differences in criminal style (i.e., co-offending vs. solo offending) remain unanswered. Using prospective 3-year longitudinal data from 937 14- to 17-year-old serious male offenders, the present study investigates whether youths tend to offend alone, in groups, or a combination of the two; whether these patterns change with age; and whether youths who engage in a particular style share distinguishing characteristics. Trajectory analyses examining criminal styles over age revealed that, while most youth evinced both types of offending, two distinct groups emerged: an increasingly solo offender trajectory (83%); and a mixed style offender trajectory (17%). Alternate analyses revealed (5.5%) exclusively solo offenders (i.e., only committed solo offenses over 3 years). There were no significant differences between groups in individuals?? reported number of friends, quality of friendships, or extraversion. However, the increasingly solo and exclusively solo offenders reported more psychosocial maturity, lower rates of anxiety, fewer psychopathic traits, less gang involvement and less self reported offending than mixed style offenders. Findings suggest that increasingly and exclusively solo offenders are not loners, as they are sometimes portrayed, and that exclusively solo offending during adolescence, while rare and previously misunderstood, may not be a risk factor in and of itself.     

Mexican Origin Youths’ Trajectories of Perceived Peer Discrimination from Middle Childhood to Adolescence: Variation by Neighborhood Ethnic Concentration

Developmentally salient research on perceived peer discrimination among minority youths is limited. Little is known about trajectories of perceived peer discrimination across the developmental period ranging from middle childhood to adolescence. Ethically concentrated neighborhoods are hypothesized to protect minority youths from discrimination, but strong empirical tests are lacking. The first aim of the current study was to estimate trajectories of perceived peer discrimination from middle childhood to adolescence, as youths transitioned from elementary to middle and to high school. The second aim was to examine the relationship between neighborhood ethnic concentration and perceived peer discrimination over time. Using a diverse sample of 749 Mexican origin youths (48.9 % female), a series of growth models revealed that youths born in Mexico, relative to those born in the U.S., perceived higher discrimination in the 5th grade and decreases across time. Youths who had higher averages on neighborhood ethnic concentration (across the developmental period) experienced decreases in perceived peer discrimination over time; those that had lower average neighborhood ethnic concentration levels showed evidence of increasing trajectories. Further, when individuals experienced increases in their own neighborhood ethnic concentration levels (relative to their own cross-time averages), they reported lower levels of perceived peer discrimination. Neighborhood ethnic concentration findings were not explained by the concurrent changes youths were experiencing in school ethnic concentrations. The results support a culturally-informed developmental view of perceived peer discrimination that recognizes variability in co-ethnic neighborhood contexts. The results advance a view of ethnic enclaves as protective from mainstream threats.     

Adolescent sexual activity and pregnancy: Socioenvironmental problems,physical health,and mental health

This paper examines the association between adolescent pregnancy and socioenvironmental, physical, and mental health problems in 1590 inner-city females aged 13–18 who use health clinics. Adolescents who have become pregnant, those who are sexually active but never have been pregnant, and those who are sexually inactive are compared. The sexually active youngsters come from more psychosocially disadvantaged backgrounds than their sexually inactive peers; the sexually active girls who become pregnant come from more psychosocially disadvantaged backgrounds than those who have never been pregnant. Despite this, the youths who have become pregnant do not have more current relationship problems, more stressful life events, or worse physical health than the never-pregnant sexually active youths. Although sexually inactive youths have the lowest rates of mental health problems, adolescents who have been pregnant have lower rates of anxiety and conduct disorder symptoms than those who are sexually active but never pregnant.Supported by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. Fieldwork conducted by Survey Research Associates.Research interests include adolescents and children, parenting, and families.Research interests include epidemiology of child and adolescent psychiatric disorder.Research interests include psychiatric epidemiology/deviant behavior.Research interests include mental health and statistical issues.Research interests include health behavior and mental health issues.     

Strategies for the Prevention of Physical Assault Among Emotionally Disturbed Youths (P.A.A.R.R.)

Techniques that reduce the potential for physical assaultiveness among emotionally disturbed youths are presented. A general manner of approaching children and adolescents during behaviotat episodes is discussed. Eight preventive intervention strategies are examined in detail. In addition, three physical intervention techniques are introduced.     

Associations Between Adolescents’ Perceived Discrimination and Prosocial Tendencies: The Mediating Role of Mexican American Values

Experiences with perceived discrimination (e.g., perceptions of being treated unfairly due to race or ethnicity) are expected to impact negatively youths’ prosocial development. However, resilience often occurs in light of such experiences through cultural factors. The current longitudinal study examined the influence of perceived discrimination on the emergence of Mexican American adolescents’ later prosocial tendencies, and examined the mediating role of Mexican American values (e.g., familism, respect, and religiosity). Participants included 749 adolescents (49 % female) interviewed at 5th, 7th, and 10th grade. Results of the current study suggested that, although perceived discrimination was associated negatively with some types of prosocial tendencies (e.g., compliant, emotional, and dire) and related positively to public prosocial helping, the associations were mediated by youths’ Mexican American values. Directions for future research are presented and practical implications for promoting adolescents’ resilience are discussed.     

Working youths: Select findings from an exploratory study

An exploratory study of working youths in Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota, is reported. The purpose of the study was to learn more specific research questions and hypotheses for more rigorous research about the life situation and personal experiences of youths who work. Two hundred seventy-two youths were interviewed in one of three ways. Select findings from 51 cases are presented on the youths' orientation to their future. The implications of these select findings for professional practice in human services are noted and other research foci are suggested.I feel like I am in prison. The prison is my young body. I work, I think but no one cares really! At the whim of society, I am child or childlike to be treated as such or I am adult or adultlike to be treated as such, but in reality I am nowhere—I am in limbo.Received M.S. from Columbia University School of Social Work, M.S. from University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Public Health, Ph.D. from University of Pittsburgh Graduate School of Social Work. Research interests include human services for youth and process of consultation.At the time of the study, he was a Research Specialist at the Center for Youth Development and Research, and interviewer in this study. Received B.S. in Psychology and Sociology from Ashland College, Ashland, Ohio.     

Parents’ Participation in a Work-Based Anti-Poverty Program Can Enhance Their Children’s Future Orientation: Understanding Pathways of Influence

Planning and preparing for life after high school is a central developmental task of American adolescents, and may be even more critical for low-income youth who are less likely to attend a four year college. This study investigates factors that led to the effects of the New Hope Project, a work-based, anti-poverty program directed at parents on youths’ career-related thoughts and planning. The New Hope project was implemented in Milwaukee, WI, during the mid-1990s. 745 families participated (52 % male children; 56 % African American; 30 % Latino, and 15 % White non-Hispanic) and half were randomly selected to receive New Hope benefits, which included earnings supplements, job search assistance, and child and health care subsidies for 3 years. Importantly, effects on youths’ future orientation were found 8 years after the program began (5 years after benefits ended). The present study investigates what factors sustained these positive impacts over time. Results indicate that parental perceptions of reading performance mediate the effects of New Hope on youths’ cynicism about work. Additionally, parental perceptions of reading performance and youths’ educational expectations mediate the effects of New Hope on boys’ pessimism about future employment. These findings highlight the importance of youths’ educational development to their career-related thoughts and planning.     

Pubertal Development, Choice of Friends, and Smoking Initiation among Adolescent Males

Prior research has indicated that pubertal development and peer associations are important determinants of adolescent smoking behavior. However, more remains to be learned about why these variables matter or how they may be related to one another in ways that lead to the initiation of smoking. Using contractual data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we consider the relationship between early pubertal development and associations with close friends who smoke, and smoking initiation among male youths. The results of the study reveal a link between advanced pubertal development and the initiation of smoking among boys, but we discover that the effect is indirect, mediated by a greater propensity of sexually mature males to forge friendships with peers who smoke. We also find that this propensity is greatest among the youngest adolescents in the sample, suggesting that the age of the respondent conditions the effects of pubertal development on the formation of friendships with peers who smoke.(Ph.D., The University of Texas at Austin), is an Assistant Professor at Washington State University at Vancouver. Her areas of interest include juvenile delinquency and substance abuse.(Ph.D., Rutgers: The State University of New Jersey) is an Assistant Professor at Westfield State College. Her area of interest is adolescent identity development.(Ph.D., The University of Texas at Austin) is an Associate Professor at the University of Portland. His areas of interest include biosocial models of adolescent problem behavior.     

‘She Said,He Said’: Credibility and sexual harassment cases in Australia

Feminist research and theory show how substance and process of law are substantially affected by its patriarchal context. Accordingly, a number of Australian studies have identified how gendered myths and other factors impact on the assessment of victim credibility in sexual assault hearings. In this article we look at sexual harassment cases in Australia lodged under the Commonwealth Sex Discrimination Act (SDA) between 2000 and 2006 and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) Discrimination Act from 2001 to 2005 to see if similar variables to those in rape cases play a role in the perception of witness believability. We find that credibility is more likely to correlate with being Anglo, very young, a rational (masculine) demeanor/presentation in giving evidence, corroborative witnesses and legal representation. In addition, respondents' counsel in federal harassment hearings or respondents themselves in correspondence to the ACT Commissioner, just as defence barristers in rape trials, attempt to make the victim appear as an incredible witness through highlighting evidentiary inconsistencies and/or delayed reporting. Also evidence about sexual history or behavior that evokes an image of provocation may be adduced. We identify a varied response to these myths and to measurement of credibility by the individual ‘gatekeepers’ — the Federal Magistrates, judges and the ACT Discrimination Commissioner.     

The Impact of Collective Efficacy on Risks for Adolescents’ Perpetration of Dating Violence

Given prevalence rates and negative consequences that adolescents’ perpetration of dating violence may have on an individual’s well-being and future relationships, it is imperative to explore factors that may increase or reduce its occurrence. Thus, we aimed to identify how multiple contextual risk factors (individual, family, schools, and neighborhoods) were related to adolescents’ perpetration of dating violence over a 6 year period. Then, we assessed how neighborhood collective efficacy, an important predictor of urban youths’ well-being, buffered the relationship between each of the risk factors and adolescents’ perpetration of dating violence. Three waves of data from the Welfare, Children, and Families: A Three-City Study were used (N = 765; Ages 16–20 at Wave 3). The sample is 53 % female, 42 % African-American, and 53 % Hispanic. For the total sample, drug and alcohol use, low parental monitoring, academic difficulties, and involvement with antisocial peers were significant early risk factors for perpetration of dating violence in late adolescence. Risk factors also varied by adolescents’ race and sex. Finally, perceived neighborhood collective efficacy buffered the relationship between early academic difficulties and later perpetration of dating violence for Hispanic males. These results imply that multiple systems should be addressed in dating violence prevention programs.     

Functioning of Adolescents With Symptoms of Disturbed Sleep

The objective of the study was to examine the association between disturbed sleep and the functioning of adolescents, in particular cumulative effects on functioning across multiple life domains. Data from a large, school-based survey (n = 5,423) were used to examine the association between eight indicators of psychological, interpersonal, and somatic functioning and symptoms of insomnia and hypersomnia among adolescents. The strongest correlates of insomnia were disturbed mood (OR = 5.9), fatigue (OR = 7.4), and suicidal ideation (OR = 3.4). The same pattern held for hypersomnia, although the associations were not as strong for fatigue (OR = 6.8), mood disturbance (OR = 3.5), and suicide ideation (OR = 2.8). Youths who experienced both insomnia and hypersomnia had greater odds of psychological, interpersonal, and somatic dysfunction than youths who had experienced only one sleep disturbance. Cumulative effects of sleep problems were pronounced, with 27.6% of those with hypersomnia, 41.7% of those with insomnia, and 59.2% of those with both sleep problems reporting three or more types of dysfunction. The results suggest that adolescents experiencing disturbed sleep also experience a range of deficits in functioning. Further, youths with disturbed sleep are more likely to manifest multiple deficits in functioning. From the available evidence, however, it is not possible to specify what the causal pathways are. What are needed are cohort studies designed to examine the association of disturbed sleep and functional impairment among adolescents prospectively.     

Predicting the Onset of Sexual and Drug Risk Behaviors in HIV-Negative Youths with HIV-Positive Mothers: The Role of Contextual,Self-Regulation,and Social-Interaction Factors

HIV-negative, inner-city adolescents with HIV-infected parents are considered to be at high risk for acquiring HIV themselves. Using a modified theory of health behavior, this study examined the effects of maternal HIV infection and psychosocial variables on the onset of sexual and drug risk behavior in 144 HIV-negative adolescents with and without HIV-positive mothers. Adolescents and their mothers were interviewed when the youths were 10–14 years old and again when they were 13–19 years old. By follow-up, 42% of youths reported the onset of vaginal sex (vs 5% at baseline). Marijuana and alcohol use increased from 6 and 38%, respectively, at baseline to 25 and 60% at follow-up. Among those reporting risk behaviors, 40--50% reported onset prior to 14 years. Youth and family psychosocial variables, but not maternal HIV status, were associated with risk behaviour outcomes. Claude A. Mellins research interests include mental health, psychosocial, and public effects of maternal and pediatric HIV; interventions for HIV-affected families; and adherence. Curtis Dolezal research interests include HIV-related sexual behavior in a variety of populations with a particular emphasis on methodology/measurement issues. Elizabeth Brackis-Cott research interests include impact of HIV/AIDS on the lives of children and families directly affected by the disease. Ouzama Nicholson research interests include international public health and pediatric HIV infection and operational issues in developing effective prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV infection and pediatric HIV care programs. Patricia Warne research interests include program development, structural interventions for HIV, and policy. Heino F. L. Meyer-Bahlburg research interests include psychosexual assessment, the development and determinants of sexual risk behavior, and the effects of HIV disease on sexual functioning.     

Psychological Distress Following Suicidality Among Gay,Lesbian, and Bisexual Youths: Role of Social Relationships

Longitudinal relations between past suicidality and subsequent changes in psychological distress at follow-up were examined among gay, lesbian, and bisexual (GLB) youths, as were psychosocial factors (e.g., self-esteem, social support, negative social relationships) that might mediate or moderate this relation. Past suicide attempters were found to have higher levels of depressive symptoms, anxious symptoms, and conduct problems at a later time than youths who neither attempted nor ideated. Psychosocial factors failed to mediate this relation. The interaction among past suicidality, social support, and negative relationships was associated with subsequent changes in all 3 psychological distress indicators 6 months later. Specifically, high levels of support (either from family or friends) or negative relationships were found to predict increased psychological distress among those with a history of suicide attempts, but not among youths without a history of suicidality. The findings suggest that GLB youths who attempt suicide continue to have elevated levels of psychological distress long after their attempt and they highlight the importance of social relationships in the youths psychological distress at follow-up.Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the biannual meeting of the European Association for Research on Adolescence, Oxford, UK, September 2002; and, at the annual meeting of the American Public Health Association, San Francisco, CA, November 2003.Associate Professor of Psychology, The City University of New York—The City College and Graduate Center. Received PhD in psychology from New York University. Research interests include the relation of identity to health, the intersection of multiple identities, and the relation of violence to health.Doctoral candidate in Social/Personality Psychology and Health Psychology, The City University of New York—Graduate Center. Research interests include the role of social relationships in the preservation of health and well-being.Research Scientist, HIV Center for Clinical and Behavioral Studies, New York State Psychiatric Institute; and Assistant Professor, Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University. Received doctorate in social welfare (DSW) from The City University of New York—Graduate Center. Research and clinical interests include the design and implementation of interventions for gay, lesbian, and bisexual adolescents.     

Chapter 11: Therapeutic Foster Parent:

Training can help foster parents manage reactions to the foster child, avoid stress and burnout, and cope with the difficult times so that placement is sustained. Training is necessary so foster parents will not take the child's aggressive behavior personally, will avoid becoming embroiled in power struggles, and will be less likely to become hurt or embarrassed by the child's behavior. Training will involve individual consultation by the social worker as well as participation in a foster parent group. Staff will assistn foster parents to develop behavioral management and communication skills as well as their own coping and self-control skills. Foster parents are given permission to take care of their own needs, are assisted in developing stress management skills, learn how to increase their own self-esteem, and learn to use cognitive approaches to handle their own emotions. Foster parents develop an understanding that they cannot change the child's behavior but can only change the way which they respond to the child, which may provide the child opportunities to change his or her own behavior.     

The Relative Importance of Mothers’ and Youths’ Neighborhood Perceptions for Youth Alcohol Use and Delinquency

Prior studies have examined the influence of neighborhood perceptions on youth outcomes, but few studies have examined whose report of neighborhoods, parents’ or youths,’ are most important in predicting youth outcomes. This study addresses the relative associations of youths’ and mothers’ neighborhood perceptions with youth alcohol use and delinquency. The sample includes 499 mother-child dyads (youth age: 10 to 16 [mean=13.3; SD=2]). Structural equation modeling showed that youths’ perceived neighborhood problems were significantly associated with their delinquency but not their alcohol use. However, mothers’ perceived neighborhood problems were not related to either youth alcohol use or delinquency, suggesting that youths’ perceptions are better indicators of youth behavior. Youth reports may reflect their activities in the neighborhood and their exposure to different forms of deviance, so youths’ reports would be better indicators of exposure to neighborhood risk. Challenges for prevention are discussed. NIAAA Postdoctoral Fellow and Associate Research Scientist at the School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, and the Prevention Research Center, Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation, Berkeley, CA. Her research interests include psychosocial and environmental factors influencing youth problem behaviors. Interests are interventions for children with substance use or externalizing problems and their families. She is currently conducting alcohol, drug and other risky behavior prevention studies that include a focus on young adults in club settings as well as a variety of different family-based studies in different geographic regions (San Francisco Bay Area, Alaska, Thailand). Her work integrates both quantitative and qualitative research methods and centers on alcohol and other drug use, and related health issues among adolescents and young adults. She is especially interested in applying theoretical models of socially learned behaviors to populations with different cultural and social backgrounds     

Aspirations,Expectations and Delinquency: The Moderating Effect of Impulse Control

Although prior research finds a robust link between delinquent behavior and expectations, or an adolescent’s perceived likelihood of obtaining one’s future goals, fewer studies have evaluated aspirations, or the perceived importance of achieving one’s goals. In addition, few studies consider how individual traits such as impulsivity affect the degree to which expectations and aspirations motivate or deter delinquent behavior. We contribute to this body of research by evaluating the independent effects of expectations and aspirations, and the aspiration-expectation gap (i.e., strain) on delinquent behavior during the year following an adolescent’s first arrest using a large (N?=?1117), racially/ethnically diverse sample of male adolescents (46.55% Latino, 35.81% Black, 14.95% White, and 2.69% Other race). In addition, we considered how impulse control interacts with expectations, aspirations, and strain to motivate behavior. Our results indicated that both aspirations, expectations and strain uniquely influence criminal behavior. Importantly, aspirations interacted with impulse control, such that aspirations affected delinquency only among youth with higher impulse control. Our findings suggest that aspirations may only influence behavior if youth also have the psychosocial capabilities to consider their future aspirations when behaving in the present.