Review of the Literature on Risk and Protective Factors of Offending Among Native Americans

Abstract

The social and economic conditions faced by much of the Native American population, as well as the history and treatment of Native Americans in our society, create many risk factors for criminal offending. At the same time, however, the cultures, traditions, and spiritualities of Native American tribes likely provide unique protective factors against offending in light of these risks. While these issues, especially drug and alcohol abuse, have received considerable attention by a handful of scholars, the level of research on risk and protective factors of offending have not, although recent research and funding decisions are beginning to make this topic a priority. This paper provides a brief review of the literature on risk and protective factors among Native Americans, highlighting some of the major factors likely to receive the most research attention over the next several years.     

Native American Youth Gangs

ABSTRACT

The number of Native American youth gangs has increased dramatically since the 1990s. These gangs bring increases in crime and pose unique challenges to tribal leaders and local police departments. Using an integrated theoretical perspective, this article connects cultural and historical factors to explain the emergence of gangs in Indian country, identify risk factors for gang involvement, and outline important considerations for effective prevention and intervention strategies. It is expected that an improved understanding of Native American culture and experiences combined with the implementation of culturally-appropriate prevention and intervention programs will lead to more positive outcomes.     

Genetic differentiation between and within Northern Native American language groups: an argument for the expansion of the Native American CODIS database

The National Research Council recommends that genetic differentiation among subgroups of ethnic samples be lower than 3% of the total genetic differentiation within the ethnic sample to be used for estimating reliable random match probabilities for forensic use. Native American samples in the United States’ Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) database represent four language families: Algonquian, Na-Dene, Eskimo-Aleut, and Salishan. However, a minimum of 27 Native American language families exists in the US, not including language isolates. Our goal was to ascertain whether genetic differences are correlated with language groupings and, if so, whether additional language families would provide a more accurate representation of current genetic diversity among tribal populations. The 21 short tandem repeat (STR) loci included in the Globalfiler® PCR Amplification Kit were used to characterize six indigenous language families, including three of the four represented in the CODIS database (i.e. Algonquian, Na-Dene, and Eskimo-Aleut), and two language isolates (Miwok and Seri) using major population genetic diversity metrics such as F statistics and Bayesian clustering analysis of genotype frequencies. Most of the genetic variation (97%) was found to be within language families instead of among them (3%). In contrast, when only the three of the four language families represented in both the CODIS database and the present study were considered, 4% of the genetic variation occurred among the language groups. Bayesian clustering resulted in a maximum posterior probability indicating three genetically distinct groups among the eight language families and isolates: (1) Eskimo, (2) Seri, and (3) all other language groups and isolates, thus confirming genetic subdivision among subgroups of the CODIS Native American database. This genetic structure indicates the need for an increased number of Native American populations based on language affiliation in the CODIS database as well as more robust sample sets for those language families.Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/20961790.2021.1963088 .     

Y chromosome microsatellite genetic variation in two Native American populations from Argentina: Population stratification and mutation data

Two Native American populations from North and northwest regions of Argentina (Toba and Colla) were analyzed for 17 Y chromosome short tandem repeat loci (Y-STRs), namely, DYS19, DYS389I, DYS389II, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393, DYS385, DYS437, DYS438, DYS439, DYS448, DYS456, DYS458, DYS635 and GATA H4.1. Over 357 allele transfers, two one-step mutations could be detected at DYS456 and GATA H4.1 loci. A new 16.1 ‘micro-variant’ allele was observed for DYS385, characterized by an insertion at the fifth GAAA repeat. We also observed two alleles at the DYS448 locus in three samples (two from Toba and one from Colla). A total of 34 and 16 different haplotypes were detected for Toba and Colla, respectively, the former with a haplotype diversity value of 0.9769 ± 0.01, whereas 0.9497 ± 0.02 for the latter. Significant population differences were observed between Colla and Toba, at least in part, due to a more prevalent European input in the Colla. In agreement with this observation is the fact that the genetic distances between Colla and Iberian populations are lower than those observed between Iberian and any other Native American population. The results of multiscaling dimensional analysis and genetic distances (Rst) among Native American population samples also reflect this fact. The data show the existence of clear population stratification in the Argentina, a fact that should be taken into account in forensic casework.     

Recidivism Among Young Males Sentenced to Prison and Youth Custody

In 1999, Sweden introduced a new Act focused on young persons aged 15–17 who commit serious offences. The object of the Act was to replace prison sentences with a new sanction in the form of youth custody, which would involve a placement in a special approved home. This study constitutes a follow-up comparison of criminal recidivism among young males sentenced to prison prior to the introduction of the Youth Custody Act (1991–1998) and young males sentenced to youth custody following the introduction of the Act (1999–2003). The study shows that the sanction has not only been used as a replacement for prison sentences, but has also led to an expansion in custodial sentencing in the form of ‘net-widening’. There has also been a substantial increase in the length of custodial sentences awarded in connection with the new sanction. A comparison with the youth sanction in Denmark raises questions about the consequences of having expanded the group of youths sentenced to a custodial sanction in Sweden, and of the increased length of the custodial sentences to which this group is subjected.     

A Person-centered Approach to Risk and Need Classification in Drug Court

A sample of 265 New York City drug court participants completed the Level of Service Inventory—Revised (LSI-R) and Texas Christian University Drug Screen II (TCUDS). Three participant clusters were identified through a person-centered analysis of their LSI-R and TCUDS responses: low risk (LR), criminogenic risk (CR), and complex behavioral health needs (CBHN). Although CBHN scored higher than CR and LR on the LSI-R and TCUDS, they were no more likely to be re-arrested at 24 months and no higher in their rate of positive drug tests. The CR cluster predicted re-arrest beyond the LSI-R and rate of positive drug tests beyond the LSI-R and TCUDS. CBHN participants placed in a residential (vs. non-residential) setting were disproportionately likely to be re-arrested. Results point to a sub-population of drug court participants not captured in variable-centered summary risk scores, who might require intensive case management or referral to suitable treatment.     

Understanding Suicide Across the Lifespan: A United States Perspective of Suicide Risk Factors,Assessment & Management

Suicide is a troubling, preventable phenomenon. Prior to attempts, individuals often seek help, prompting practitioners to perform risk assessments that ideally use evidence‐based risk management strategies. A literature review was performed using Harvard Countway Library of Medicine, Google Scholar, PubMed. Key words used were “Forensic Science,” “Suicide Risk Management,” “Pediatric Suicide Risk Factors,” “Adult Suicide Risk Factors,” “Geriatric Suicide Risk Factors,” “Suicide Risk Assessment.” Parameters limited articles to studies/reviews completed in the past twenty years in the United States. Results indicated predictors of suicide in juveniles were insomnia, burdensomeness, and recent conflicts with family or a romantic partner. Adults had greater risk if male, substance abusing, with marital/job loss. Elderly individuals with multiple medical comorbidities, hopelessness, and isolation were at higher risk. Everyone evaluated should be screened for access to firearms. Management of suicide risk involves providing the least restrictive form of treatment which maintains an individual's safety.     

Risk Perceptions and Fear of Criminal Victimization Among Visitors to Jamaica

ABSTRACT

Tourism is viewed as being particularly vulnerable to crime and data on the attitudes of visitors and travel agents tend to confirm this. Visitor perceptions of the risk of being criminally victimized in Jamaica have tended to be somewhat negative although the rate of criminal victimization of tourists is fairly low. Visitors' perceptions of safety are thus not in keeping with the objective indicators of the risk of tourist victimization. This paper attempts to explain this disjuncture between risk perception and the reality of visitor victimization. It discusses the likely long-term effects, and suggests possible responses to it.     

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Protective and Risk Factors in 18 Survivors of a Plane Crash

The aim of this study is to identify protective and risk factors related to the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) on a sample of survivors from a single plane crash. Eighteen survivors were examined 6 months following the event. The subjects all underwent psychiatric interviews, Clinician‐Administered PTSD Scale structured interviews, personality and cognitive tests. Only 38.9% of them presented with all of the symptoms of PTSD; 22.2% showed no symptoms for PTSD; remaining survivors exhibited emotional/affective symptoms related to the event. In addition to the severity of the traumatic event itself, other risk factors identified were the loss of a relative, the manifestation of depressive symptoms, and the severity of physical injuries sustained. Low levels of hostility and high levels of self‐efficacy represented protective factors against developing PTSD.     

Assessing dynamic risk and protective factors in the community: examining the validity of the Dynamic Risk Assessment for Offender Re-entry

Recently, there has been a growing interest in advancing the state of offender risk assessment: particularly through the development of risk instruments to assist with parole management and the incorporation of protective factors specific to re-entry. The current study's aim was to validate a measure of stable and acute dynamic risk factors and protective factors used by probation officers managing offenders in the community: the Dynamic Risk Assessment for Offender Re-Entry (DRAOR). Empirical examination of the structure of DRAOR scores soon after release from prison suggested four components, rather than the theoretically proposed three-subscale structure. Both the original three subscales and the four new subscales showed good convergent validity with other dynamic risk instruments, and reliably predicted new convictions; however, only the new stable component added significant incremental predictive power over existing static and dynamic risk instruments. These findings provide initial support for the validity of the DRAOR; suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Gang joining in Denmark: prevalence and correlates of street gang membership

This paper examines gang joining among juveniles in socially disadvantaged residential neighbourhoods with gang presence. The analysis is based on a school-based survey among students (n = 1,886) in Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark. The theoretical framework is inspired by the Eurogang Program of Research—that is, their definition of street gangs was utilized in the study. The results indicate that 13% of the youths aged 13–17 are members of street gangs. The street gang members are more likely to be characterized by poor parental monitoring, weak pro-social values, and high-risk lifestyles compared with other crime involvement groups, including serious offenders; and they commit a disproportionately large number of offences. The results also indicate that proximity to criminal gangs on a higher organizational level than street gangs increases willingness to join such criminal gangs, especially for street gang members, as they are more likely to be in contact with older and more powerful gang members already—for example, they have helped them by being a look-out or passing messages.     

Modeling Substance Use and Related Risk Behaviors Leading to Criminal Justice Involvement Among Young Adult Women

Abstract

Using structural equation modeling, two models of the relationship between trauma, attachment, substance use, risk behavior, and criminal justice involvement among young adult women were tested. Overall, the model constructs explained approximately 23% and 36% of the variance in Illicit Substance Use and Risk Behavior, respectively, and 28% of the variance in Criminal Justice Involvement. Data were taken from a longitudinal study of pregnant and parenting adolescents (N = 239). This population is important because they may be at increased risk for involvement in problem behaviors across adolescence and adulthood. Findings suggest that patterns of emotional dysregulation are significant contributors to women's illicit substance use and risk behavior. Implications for intervention and prevention are addressed.     

A Test of Generalizability of the Social Development Model Across Gender and Income Groups with Longitudinal Data from the Elementary School Developmental Period

The social development model (SDM) is a theory of behavior that has proven useful in explaining the etiology of delinquency, violence, and substance use among adolescents as well as early antisocial behavior among pre-adolescents. A further test of the model is its generalizability across population groups. A section of the SDM representing prosocial influences in the etiology of problem behavior was compared for boys and girls and for children from low- and non low-income families using three waves of child, parent and teacher survey data on a sample of 851 elementary school students. Multiple group structural equation modeling was used to assess differences across groups in both measurement of model constructs and hypothesized structural paths between constructs. The results indicate overall similarity in the reliability of measurement models and validity of structural models.     

Elder Abuse by Caregivers: A Study of Prevalence and Risk Factors in Hong Kong Chinese Families

This study aimed to establish preliminary estimates and related risk factors for elder abuse among Hong Kong Chinese families. A total of 276 elder Chinese participated in the study, among which 27.5% reported having experienced at least one abusive behavior committed against them by their caregivers during the surveyed year. The most common form of abuse was verbal abuse (26.8%), whereas physical abuse (2.5%) and violation of personal rights (5.1%) were relatively less common. There was no gender difference in the prevalence of elder abuse. Overall and verbal abuse were best predicted by participants' poor visual and memory abilities, dependence on the caregivers, and caregivers' nondependence on them. Physical abuse was best predicted by caregivers' nondependence on the participants as well as participants' dependence on the caregivers. Participants' age was the only significant predictor for violation of personal rights. Results, limitations, and implications of the study were also discussed.     

危险驾驶罪犯罪构成及相关问题研究——以风险社会管理为视角

德国社会学教授乌尔利希.贝克指出,风险社会已成为当今社会的中心议题。为了实现对风险社会的管理,我国在立法上,特别是刑事立法上不断与时俱进,进行了相应的修改,危险驾驶罪作为抽象危险犯,是刑罚处罚的早期化,它是风险社会中风险控制的体现,能实现刑法的提前保护,又能充分保障人权,防止刑罚权滥用。     

Violent Life Events and Social Disadvantage: A Systematic Study of the Social Background of Various Kinds of Lethal Violence,Other Violent Crime,Suicide, and Suicide Attempts1

ABSTRACT

Open sanctions and changes in conceptions of rehabilitation are changing qualification requirements in the field of prison and probation services. In particular, the significance of social interaction between employees and offenders has emphasized. This study examines this issue from the viewpoints of social constructionism and discourse analysis. Research material was collected by interviewing 11 Finnish Criminal Sanction Agency employees who prepared and enforced supervised probationary freedom. According to the results, social interaction was structured from different points of view and linked to differently constructed identities in the interviewees’ speech. Professional interaction and a confidential employee–offender relationship were viewed as a means to create occupational safety and prevent security risks, and also to support offender’s rehabilitation. In addition, employees used a discourse of daily interaction and support which emphasized the significance of everyday encounters with the offender. Employees were able to overcome the tension between support and control by flexibly combining the discourse of supervision with the discourse of daily interaction and support, which enabled them to support the offender without being a rehabilitation professional. The study reveals the central role of social interaction, which creates challenges for education, and the development of an organizational culture in prison and probation services.     

Prediction of institutional aggression among personality disordered forensic patients using actuarial and structured clinical risk assessment tools: prospective evaluation of the HCR-20, VRS,Static-99, and Risk Matrix 2000

A minority of men and women with intellectual disabilities at times engage in, and are suspected, or convicted, of illegal activity. Recent policy developments in England and Wales emphasise the need to respond appropriately to putative offending risk through the provision of safe and effective community management, treatment, and support services. In line with these concerns, research has focused increasingly on testing the utility of an evolving variety of risk assessment procedures. Here, the authors set out to challenge the repertoire of a number of prominent and/or recently developed risk assessment procedures and the scope of an associated research literature, on the basis that contextual risk factors are receiving insufficient attention in relation to offending among people with intellectual disabilities. Drawing on the wider criminological literature, a novel study is reported that compares key contemporary proximal social and environmental circumstances in the lives of offenders and non-offenders with intellectual disabilities. A contextual risk score is derived, providing statistical support for increased consideration of the impact of relevant social and environmental circumstances. Increased emphasis on key contextual risk factors is recommended to strengthen community service responses to offenders with intellectual disabilities.     

The Juvenile Justice Reform Act of 2018: Updating the Federal Approach to Youth Involved,and At‐Risk of Becoming Involved,in the Juvenile Justice System

On December 21, 2018, the Juvenile Justice Reform Act was signed into law, marking the first update in 16 years to the Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act of 1974, as amended. The reforms reflect much of the knowledge that has been gained through research and science over the past decade and strengthen the Act’s core protections for youth in the juvenile justice system. The changes also expand the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention’s role in research, and technical assistance, and provide for additional oversight for related programs.