General strain and non-strain theories: A study of crime in emerging adulthood

Purpose

Despite continued increase in research on general strain theory (GST), previous studies on the relationship between GST and other criminological theories has been limited. To fill this gap in GST research, the present study aims to examine whether non-strain variables of social bonding theory, social learning theory, and self-control theory, as well as negative emotions mediate and moderate the effects of strain on crime and drug use.

Methods

Ordinary least squares regressions were applied to conduct a simultaneous analysis of mediation and moderation effects, using multiple waves of the restricted-use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health).

Results

The non-strain variables of social bonds and low self-control, but not deviant peer association, as well as trait anger and state depression/anxiety mediate the effects of strain on crime and drug use, but hypotheses about the moderating effects of these variables receive less support.

Conclusions

The central claims of GST need to be expanded to include non-emotive mediators of the effects of strain on crime, given that negative emotions are not expected to fully mediate the criminogenic effects of strain.     

The Pains of Imprisonment Revisited: The Impact of Strain on Inmate Recidivism

Recent research suggests that imprisonment may increase subsequent levels of offending, but it is not clear why this is the case. Drawing on general strain theory (GST), this study examines whether exposure to the strains associated with imprisonment affects recidivism. These strains include direct victimization, the perception of a threatening prison environment, and hostile relationships with correctional officers. Consistent with GST, data from a sample of 1,613 recently released inmates in Ohio suggest that certain types of these strains do increase the likelihood of recidivism. These results challenge specific deterrence theory and claims by public officials that painful prisons will reduce reoffending.     

Can General Strain Theory Help Us Understand Violent Behaviors Among People with Mental Illnesses?

Recent work suggests that violence among people with mental illnesses is not simply due to the symptoms and comorbidities that define mental illness. We further this work by examining the extent to which strains or stressors explain the link between mental illness and violence. Specifically, we apply general strain theory (GST) to a longitudinal sample of adults with mental illnesses to investigate the lagged effects on violence of several strain measures, while controlling for mental illness symptoms, substance abuse, past violence, and other key variables. Parental drug abuse from childhood and stressful life events across the life course predict violence in adulthood. In a prospective model, relationship strain from an earlier time period significantly predicts changes in later self-reported violence. The results shed light on the ability of criminological frameworks to explain violence among people with mental illnesses.     

AN EMPIRICAL TEST OF GENERAL STRAIN THEORY*

This paper tests Agnew's (1992) general strain theory (GST) of crime and delinquency. GST argues that strain occurs when others (1) prevent or threaten to prevent you from achieving positively valued goals, (2) remove or threaten to remove positively valued stimuli that you possess, or (3) present or threaten to present you with noxious or negatively valued stimuli. The impact of such strain on delinquency is said to be conditioned by several variables, such as association with delinquent peers and self-efficacy. Data from a sample of 1,380 New Jersey adolescents provide qualified support for the theory; strain measures of the type described above have a relatively substantial effect on delinquency and drug use. Further, the effect of these strain measures is conditioned by delinquent peers and self-efficacy, as predicted by GST.     

GENERAL STRAIN THEORY: ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE USING CROSS‐CULTURAL DATA*

Data from random samples of residents in major cities of Russia, Ukraine, and Greece are employed to test hypotheses about linkages among objective strain, subjective strain, anger, and criminal probability specified in general strain theory (GST). In addition, the potential conditioning effects of religiosity and self‐control on the strain/criminal probability relationship are investigated. Results show more challenge than support for GST. In particular, all supportive results are for the Ukrainian sample with the Greek and Russian samples providing little confirmation to the study's hypotheses. Although analyses show some support for the basic premises of GST, using a measure of subjective strain does not improve results, and self‐control and religiosity do not seem to condition the effects of strain on criminal probability. Overall, the findings point to contextual specificity of GST as currently formulated and suggest the need for further theorizing.     

Healthy, wealthy, and wise: Incorporating health issues as a source of strain in Agnew's general strain theory

The current study uses Agnew's general strain theory (GST) as a foundation to argue that poor health may lead to delinquency. Those who suffer frequently from minor health problems and lack resources to afford proper medical care are expected to experience elevated levels of health-related strain, negative emotional affect, and report engaging in more delinquent acts. Using longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), negative binomial regression models were estimated and show that health strains increase the subsequent frequency of non-violent delinquency even when controlling for important demographic and theoretically derived variables. Health strain's influence on non-violent delinquency was not conditioned by anger, depression, self-esteem, low constraint, or religiosity. Implications for GST are discussed and a modest research agenda for investigating health strain is identified.     

A comparative analysis of general strain theory

Purpose

Since its introduction in 1992, general strain theory (GST) has garnered much empirical support. The large share of this support, however, derives from studies conducted in the United States. There is little comparative research on GST, particularly research that examines the effect of the same or similar strains on crime across countries. Thus, we know little about the generalizability of GST. This study attempts to fill this gap by testing GST in five different cities across Europe: Bucharest in Romania, Sofia in Bulgaria, Riga in Latvia, Kaunas in Lithuania and Reykjavik in Iceland.

Methods

We examine the relationship between five strain measures and violent- and property crime among samples of adolescents in each city using regression techniques.

Results

The data are generally supportive of GST, with most of the strains having significant associations with property and violent crime in all or most of the cities.

Conclusion

GST is generalizable to a range of European cities. Implications and examples for future comparative research on GST are discussed.     

Strain,Negative Emotions,and Deviant Coping Among African Americans: A Test of General Strain Theory

Although previous research on Agnew's (1992) general strain theory (GST) tends to yield significant effects of strain on negative emotions as well as deviance and crime, results tend to be mixed with regard to (1) the effects of negative emotions on deviance and crime and (2) conditioning factors that Agnew suggests affect the selection of coping strategies. To address these issues, we test hypotheses, derived from GST, about the relationships among strain, negative emotions, and deviant coping by analyzing data from a nationally representative sample of African American adults. Ordinary least squares regression results generally support our hypotheses. First, fully mediating the effects of strain on deviant coping, negative emotions have consistently significant effects on deviance, regardless of whether we use composite or separate measures of inner- and outer-directed emotions and deviance. Interestingly, as hypothesized, the same-directed effects of negative emotions on deviant coping are larger than the opposite-directed ones. Second, while self-esteem and self-efficacy as conditioning factors generally fail to receive empirical support, religiosity is found to significantly buffer the effects of negative emotions on deviance. Implications of our findings for further development of GST are discussed.     

General strain and delinquency: An alternative examination of conditioning influences

One of the key assumptions of Agnew's general strain theory (GST) is that various factors condition the effect of strain on delinquency. Past research examining this question, however, has not revealed consistent support for this hypothesis. The accumulating negative evidence on the conditioning hypothesis suggests that the theory may need to be revised or, alternatively, that past studies simply were unable to uncover valid relationships because of the analytical methods employed. In the current examination, we use data from the National Youth Survey and contingency table analyses to examine whether the strain-delinquency relationship is conditioned by various risk factors such as exposure to delinquent peers, holding deviant beliefs, and having a behavioral propensity toward delinquency. The results reveal both cross-sectional and longitudinal support for the conditioning hypothesis derived from GST. Implications for future research on GST are discussed.     

Examining the Links Between General Strain and Control Theories: an Investigation of Delinquency in South Korea

In modifying general strain theory (GST), Agnew has accepted the control-related variables as conditioning variables to moderate or mediate the casual process through strain into delinquency. In this regard, this study aims to empirically and theoretically address the void of connecting traditional and redefined self-control variables to GST. To explore this issue, the current study employed data derived from the Korea Children and Youth Panel Study (KCYPS). Specifically, three waves (2012, 2013, and 2014) were used to test hypotheses from GST and control theories. Both trait-based low self-control and revised self-control partially mediated the relationship between strain and delinquency. However, only redefined self-control significantly interacted with strain in producing delinquency. The current research reveals the possible integration of redefined control theory and GST.

     

Exploring the utility of general strain theory in explaining problematic alcohol consumption by police officers

Research has shown a link between police officer stress and negative coping strategies, particularly problematic alcohol consumption. Unfortunately, most research on this topic has not been theoretically informed. Agnew's general strain theory (GST) offers a potential theoretical explanation for this relationship. Furthermore, few studies of GST had been conducted on samples other than school-aged adolescents or college students. The purpose of this study was two-fold. First, the authors examined whether GST could explain drinking prevalence and problematic alcohol consumption among police officers. Second, the generalizability of GST to a sample of police officers was examined. Using data collected from a large sample of Baltimore, Maryland police officers, support for GST was found. Consistent with theoretical expectations, multivariate logit and ordinal logit regression models showed that the relationship between work-related strain and drinking prevalence and problematic alcohol consumption was mediated through anxiety/depression. Ideas for future research are discussed.     

Strain, coping mechanisms, and slavery: a general strain theory application

General strain theory (GST) is a framework for understanding how strain, or psychological adversity, affects individuals, and how these individuals cope with strain. Researchers have generally used the theory to study contemporary crime and deviance. However, GST offers a more general perspective for the study of strain that apply to other contexts. This paper examines applicability of GST to African-American experiences during slavery in order to determine the relevance of the theory to an historical context and to shed light onto that context. Relying on primary and secondary sources from the historical record, I argue that slaves in America experienced the types of strain outlined in GST, showing how these strains affected individuals. Moreover, during the ante-bellum period, African Americans appear to have utilized the same coping strategies and resources found in GST, which helps to illustrate how and why such coping strategies were used. As a result, GST is able to offer insights into a historical context – an application of the theory neither researchers in the criminological, nor the historical literature have explored. Implications for the application of GST in other situations of confinement (e.g., the prison) are discussed.

---

Bruised Inside Out: The Adverse and Abusive Life Histories of Incarcerated Women as Pathways to PTSD and Illicit Drug Use

The majority of incarcerated women who suffer from diverse traumatic life histories including abusive home lives and intimate partner violence (IPV), develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and struggle with heavy illicit drug use. While many have offered examinations of these relationships, the current study is among the first to utilize an integrated feminist pathways and general strain theory (GST) approach to explain them. Using data from a stratified random sample of all incarcerated women in Oklahoma (N = 334), we explore the links between, adverse childhood experiences, including physical, sexual, emotional, and childhood neglect, IPV, PTSD, and heavy illicit drug use. Our findings indicate that the effects of IPV on heavy illicit drug use are mediated by PTSD symptoms suggesting that PTSD plays a significant role in the pathway to illicit drug use among Oklahoma women prisoners. Implications for the importance of utilizing an integrated feminist pathways and GST approach in future research are offered.     

Gendered Responses to Serious Strain: The Argument for a General Strain Theory of Deviance

This paper expands and builds on newer avenues in research on gender and general strain theory (GST). I accomplish this by focusing on serious strains that are relevant for males and females, including externalizing and internalizing forms of negative emotions, and including multiple gendered deviant outcomes. Using the Add Health dataset, I find strong support for the impact of serious strains on both types of negative emotions and different forms of deviance for males and females. However, the experience of serious strain, emotionally and behaviorally, is gendered. Depressive symptoms are particularly important for all types of deviance by females. Including multiple types of deviant outcomes offers a fuller understanding of both similarities and differences by gender. These results support the utility of GST as a theory of deviance in general and support greater connections between GST, feminist theorizing, and the sociology of mental health.     

Examining general strain: Using subjective and objective measures of academic strain to predict delinquency

General Strain Theory (GST) places importance on the experience of negative emotional states resulting from exposure to stressful and/or negative events. Subsequent research has suggested that identifying strain might be contingent upon the use of objective or subjective measures of strain, and that the types of delinquent outcomes assessed might mediate the significance of the findings. Using a sample of nontraditional high school students, this study examines whether objective or subjective measures of academic strain will explain involvement in both substance use (e.g., alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs) or delinquent offending. We conclude with results and policy implications.     

Experienced,vicarious, and anticipated strain: An exploratory study on physical victimization and delinquency

Most research on strain theory has focused on the effect of personally experienced strain on delinquency. This study focused on vicarious and anticipated strain; vicarious strain refers to the real-life strains experienced by others around the individual, while anticipated strain refers to the individual's expectation that current strains will continue into the future or that new strains will be experienced. Data from a national sample of adolescent boys were used to examine that type of strain involving physical victimization. A multiple regression analysis indicated that delinquency is related not only to experienced victimization, but also to certain types of anticipated and vicarious physical victimization.     

Generalizing general strain theory: An examination of an offending population

We attempt to investigate the generality of general strain theory (GST) by exploring the operation of general strain in an offending population. Data are obtained from self-report interviews of approximately 150 youths who had been adjudicated for a variety of offenses; all had been identified as chemically abusing or dependent. Using measures of strain and negative affect, as well as strain-exacerbating factors such as peer delinquency and strain-alleviating factors such as family communication and cognitive, social, physical, emotional, and spiritual coping skills, we find support for some of the basic tenets of GST. Implications of the findings for future research are discussed.     

Strain,Crime, and Contingencies

Hypotheses from General Strain theory are addressed using data from a random sample of adults in Raleigh, NC. Analyses examine three issues: (1) whether strain predicts self‐projected criminal behavior; controlling for past self‐reported crime; (2) whether negative emotions mediate the relationship between strain and projected crime; and (3) whether social support and criminal peers serve as contingencies or mediators for strain in predicting criminality. Results are generally consistent with previous studies focusing on youth. Three of four measures of strain are found to predict the crime measures. However, that relationship is not mediated by negative emotion and the measures of social support and criminal peers do not act as contingencies or mediators. The results suggest that strain may not operate through negative emotions and that theoretical refinement is needed to identify which potential contingencies are likely to be operating under various circumstances.     

When Criminal Coping is Likely: An Examination of Conditioning Effects in General Strain Theory

Objectives

This paper addresses a central problem in general strain theory (GST): the mixed results regarding those factors said to condition the effect of strains on crime. We test Agnew’s (Deviant Behav 34(8):653–670, 2013) assertion that a criminal response to strain is likely only when individuals score high on several factors that increase the propensity for criminal coping or possess markers that indicate a strong propensity for criminal coping.

Methods

We use survey data from nearly 6000 juveniles from across the United States to examine whether the effect of criminogenic strains across several domains—perceptions of police, school environment, and victimization—on crime are conditioned by: (1) respondents’ criminal propensity and (2) gang membership. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first criminological study to employ an analytical framework that simultaneously considers nonlinear (i.e., curvilinear) dynamics, non-additive (i.e., interactive) effects, and non-normally distributed dependent variables. This approach has the advantage of properly differentiating nonlinear and non-additive dimensions and therefore significantly improving our understanding of conditioning effects.

Results

We find considerable support for Agnew’s (2013) postulation about conditioning effects and GST. Criminal behavior is more likely among those with a strong overall propensity for criminal coping and among gang members. Furthermore, we discover that the conditioning effects are, themselves, nonlinear. That is, the effect of criminal propensity on moderating the relationship between our three measures of strain and delinquency varies across the range of the criminal propensity index. Our models that simultaneously consider both the non-additive and nonlinear relationship between strains, criminal propensity, and criminal offending better fit the data than models that consider these dimensions separately. These results hold whether examining a composite measure of criminal activity or, alternatively, three separate subscales indexing violent, property, and drug offenses.

Conclusion

Our study advances GST and the crime literature by identifying the types of strained individuals most likely to engage in criminal coping. Additionally, the analytical framework we adopt serves as a model for the correct measurement and interpretation of conditioning effects for criminological data, which almost invariably violate the assumptions of the linear regression model. Parametric interactions are the most commonly investigated type of interactions, but other kinds of interactions are also plausible and may reveal conditional relationships that are either overlooked or understated when analysts adopt a fully parametric framework. We demonstrate the utility of expressly modeling both the nonlinear effects of component variables in an interaction and the nonlinear nature of the conditioning effect.

     

General strain theory, key strains, and deviance

The current study, using a sample of 294 university students, examined the effects of key strains, negative emotions, and conditioning factors on various types of deviance. Eight key strains most likely to lead to deviance, but largely ignored in the previous research on the general strain theory (GST), such as teachers' emotional punishment and race/gender discrimination, were measured. Overall, the findings indicated that teachers' emotional punishment and race discrimination were significantly related to deviance, consistent with GST's prediction. Students who were emotionally punished by teachers and/or were racially discriminated against were more likely to engage in deviance. The findings, however, showed that anger had no significant mediating effect linking strains to deviance and that interaction factors between strain and conditioning variables had limited effects on deviance.