Cannabis findings in drivers suspected of driving under the influence of drugs in Finland from 2006 to 2008

The authors examined driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) cases which were found to be positive in whole blood for cannabis in Finland from 2006 to 2008. Factors studied were the number of cases positive for any combination of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and the metabolites 11-hydroxy-Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-OH) and 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH). Concurrent use of amphetamines, benzodiazepines and/or alcohol was also recorded, as well as the drivers' age and gender. Altogether 2957 cannabis positive cases were retrieved from the database of the Alcohol and Drug Analytics Unit, National Institute for Health and Welfare. Drug findings were examined in relation to the zero-tolerance policy operated towards DUID in Finland. The number of cannabis positive cases in each year was approximately 1000 and the main demographic of cases was males aged 20-30 years. In the majority of cases (51.6%) the inactive metabolite THC-COOH was the only indication of cannabis use, however, associated use of amphetamines (58.8% of all cases) and/or benzodiazepines (63.9%) in cannabis positive drivers was very common. Detections for amphetamines and/or benzodiazepines were especially common in drivers with THC-COOH only (92.8% of these cases). Combined use of alcohol (25.7%) was also prevalent. Suspect DUID cases generally arise from suspicion on behalf of the police and the zero-tolerance policy offers an expedient means to deal with the challenges presented in DUID, particularly in view of the high incidence of multiple drug use - the legislation is not unduly punitive when enforced in this manner.     

Police crackdown on Christiania in Copenhagen

A recent change in Danish cannabis control policy has had significant implications for the structure of the retail-level cannabis market in Copenhagen. A process of restructuring following an crackdown on ‘Pusher Street’ has involved at least four people getting shot and killed in what police describe as struggles for market shares. Combating the retail cannabis market was a top three priority for the Copenhagen police. The shift in policy started in 2004 when possession for personal use was up-penalized, from a discriminatory warning to an obligatory fine of 70 euros which was quadrupled in 2007. The law was immediately followed by an extensive police crackdown on Christiania’s open retail-market. Christiania has had a cannabis market for 32 years. As cannabis use rates rose throughout the ‘90’s the market flourished. On a given day it’s estimated turnover was around 20 k, about twothirds of the total market in Copenhagen. On the 16th of May 2004 police raided ‘Pusher Street’ and arrested 60 dealers and their helpers along with 20 people accused of forming an organized lookout corps. After the initial raid police implemented a zero-tolerance zone in the area and targeted users in a deterrent effort issuing a total of 4834 fines in a year. Maintaining the zero tolerance zone has so far involved 12 big confrontations with the inhabitants of Christiania. 114 police officers have been injured and 29 formal complaints of police conduct have been lodged with the State Attorney. Following the crackdown the cannabis market adapted by dispersing and applying new methods for retail dealing.     

A survey of the potency of Japanese illicit cannabis in fiscal year 2010

In recent years, increased 'cannabis potency', or Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content in cannabis products, has been reported in many countries. A survey of Japanese illicit cannabis was conducted from April 2010 to March 2011. In Japan, all cannabis evidence is transferred to the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare after criminal trials. The evidence was observed at Narcotics Control Department offices in major 11 cities. The total number of cannabis samples observed was 9072, of which 6376 were marijuana. The marijuana seizures were further classified, and it was found that in terms of the number of samples, 65.2% of them were seedless buds, and by weight 73.0% of them were seedless buds. Seedless buds were supposed to be 'sinsemilla', a potent class of marijuana. THC, cannabinol (CBN) and cannabidiol (CBD) in marijuana seizures exceeding 1g were quantified. The number of samples analyzed was 1115. Many of them were shown to contain CBN, an oxidative product from THC. This was a sign of long-term storage of the cannabis and of the degradation of THC. Relatively fresh cannabis, defined by a CBN/THC ratio of less than or equal to 0.1, was chosen for analysis. Fresh seedless buds (335 samples) contained an average of 11.2% and a maximum of 22.6% THC. These values are comparable to those of 'high potency cannabis' as defined in previous studies. Thus, this study shows that highly potent cannabis products are distributed in Japan as in other countries.     

Potency trends of delta9-THC and other cannabinoids in confiscated marijuana from 1980-1997

The analysis of 35,312 cannabis preparations confiscated in the USA over a period of 18 years for delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta9-THC) and other major cannabinoids is reported. Samples were identified as cannabis, hashish, or hash oil. Cannabis samples were further subdivided into marijuana (loose material, kilobricks and buds), sinsemilla, Thai sticks and ditchweed. The data showed that more than 82% of all confiscated samples were in the marijuana category for every year except 1980 (61%) and 1981 (75%). The potency (concentration of delta9-THC) of marijuana samples rose from less than 1.5% in 1980 to approximately 3.3% in 1983 and 1984, then fluctuated around 3% till 1992. Since 1992, the potency of confiscated marijuana samples has continuously risen, going from 3.1% in 1992 to 4.2% in 1997. The average concentration of delta9-THC in all cannabis samples showed a gradual rise from 3% in 1991 to 4.47% in 1997. Hashish and hash oil, on the other hand, showed no specific potency trends. Other major cannabinoids [cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), and cannabichromene (CBC)] showed no significant change in their concentration over the years.     

Cannabis and driving: Results from a general population survey

The role of illicit drugs on driving, and particularly of cannabis and driving, is the object of increasing awareness. While there is increasing evidence of their effect on psychomotor performance and increased risk of involvement in traffic accidents, limited information is available concerning factors that can predict the likelihood of driving under the influence of cannabis. The present study aims to determine the past year prevalence of driving under the influence of cannabis, and of being a passenger in a vehicle driven by a person under the influence of cannabis, as well as to examine the correlations with a broad range of potential risk factors. A total of 2500 people, aged between 14 and 70 and living in Castille and Leon (Spain), were surveyed in 2004 with regard to their consumption of alcohol and illicit drugs. Among those who reported cannabis use in the previous year, further assessment was carried out. 15.7% of those surveyed reported cannabis consumption in the previous 12 months, of whom 9.7% reported driving a vehicle under the influence of cannabis during this period, on average eight times. One out of five (19.9%) reported being a passenger in a vehicle driven by a person under the influence of cannabis, on average five times in the previous 12 months. The predictors of driving under the influence of cannabis were the population size of community, the number of drugs consumed, reference to cannabis-related problems and to being a passenger in a vehicle driven by a person under the influence of alcohol. The data show that cannabis consumption and driving is common, and requires more attention from policy makers.     

Suicides in the young people of Geneva, Switzerland, from 1993 to 2002

Suicides in Geneva in those less than 25 years old, from 1993 to 2002, were reviewed. Scenes investigations, autopsy findings, toxicology results, and psychiatric history (when available) were examined. There were 65 cases. The average annual suicide rate was 11/100,000. Seventy-seven percent were male, and 23% were female. The youngest was 12 years old and most of the victims were 18 years old and over (89%). For men, the use of firearms was the most common method (38%), followed by fall from height (16%) and drowning (10%). For women, fall from height was the most frequent (40%), followed by firearms and medication overdoses (20% each), hanging (13%), and drowning (7%). Toxicological analysis was performed in 41% of the cases and showed that alcohol was present in 26% and other drugs in 67% of these cases. The most common drugs present were benzodiazepines, cannabis, and cocaine.     

First systematic evaluation of the potency of Cannabis sativa plants grown in Albania

Cannabis products (marijuana, hashish, cannabis oil) are the most frequently abused illegal substances worldwide. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the main psychoactive component of Cannabis sativa plant, whereas cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN) are other major but no psychoactive constituents. Many studies have already been carried out on these compounds and chemical research was encouraged due to the legal implications concerning the misuse of marijuana. The aim of this study was to determine THC, CBD and CBN in a significant number of cannabis samples of Albanian origin, where cannabis is the most frequently used drug of abuse, in order to evaluate and classify them according to their cannabinoid composition. A GC-MS method was used, in order to assay cannabinoid content of hemp samples harvested at different maturation degree levels during the summer months and grown in different areas of Albania. This method can also be used for the determination of plant phenotype, the evaluation of psychoactive potency and the control of material quality. The highest cannabinoid concentrations were found in the flowers of cannabis. The THC concentrations in different locations of Albania ranged from 1.07 to 12.13%. The influence of environmental conditions on cannabinoid content is discussed. The cannabinoid content of cannabis plants were used for their profiling, and it was used for their classification, according to their geographical origin. The determined concentrations justify the fact that Albania is an area where cannabis is extensively cultivated for illegal purposes.     

改良高盐低pH方法提取陈旧大麻DNA初探

目的探讨建立室温保存10年队上大麻干叶及大麻树脂DNA提取方法。方法采用SDS及改良高盐低pH方法，改变提取缓冲液中β-巯基乙醇终浓度，增加用酚、氯仿快速抽提过程，提取新鲜和陈旧大麻（树脂）DNA，应用大麻叶绿体trnLintron引物进行PCR，琼脂糖凝胶电泳法检测扩增产物。结果用高盐低pH方法获得了10年以上大麻干叶及树脂清晰的电泳图谱，其中成功提取了1份23年陈旧大麻的DNA。结论高盐低pH方法操作简便、实用，可望用于陈旧、微量大麻植株的DNA检测，对于涉毒案件中特殊大麻标本的检验具有一定意义。     

Deposition of cannabinoids in hair after long-term use of cannabis

Hair analysis has shown great potential in the detection and control of drug use. Whether an assay is of quantitative value roughly corresponding to the amount of drug consumed, is still a matter of debate. The present investigation was aimed at a possible relationship between the cannabinoid concentration in hair and the cumulative dose in regular users of cannabis. Hair samples from the vertex region of the scalp were obtained from 12 male regular users of cannabis, and 10 male subjects with no experience of cannabis served as controls. None of the subjects had his hair permed, bleached or colored. Cannabis users provided information on drug use such as the current cannabis dose per day, the cumulative cannabis dose of the last 3 months, as well as the frequency of cannabis use during the last year. The concentration of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabinol (CBN) and cannabidiol (CBD) in hair was determined using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Cannabinoids were present in any hair sample of cannabis users, but were not detectable in control specimens. An increase in the amount of cannabinoids in hair with increasing dose was evident. The concentration of major cannabinoids (sum of THC, CBD and CBN) was significantly correlated to either the reported cumulative cannabis dose during the last 3 months or to the cannabis use during the last 3 months estimated from the daily dose and the frequency per year (r=0.68 or 0.71, p=0.023 or 0.014). A significant relationship between THC and the amount of cannabis used could not be established. As a conclusion, the sum of major cannabinoids in hair of regular users may provide a better measure of drug use than THC.     

Networking and Technology Transfer in the Spanish Ceramic Tiles Cluster: Its Role in the Sector Competitiveness

The ceramic tile cluster industry in Spain has actually a global turnover of approximately 3.000 M Euros of which a 60% is exported. Its annual growth has been around a steady 20% the last five tears. In spite of the traditional Italian technology leadership, the clusterization of this industry in Spain (90% of the producers are located in a 40 km geographical circle) has altered these traditional R&D roles. The increasing rate of technology transfer and co-operation, which is taking place, especially in the product development area, has enabled this change. This paper will aim to analyze the cluster competitiveness and the technology formal and informal cooperation networks, which have been established during the last twenty years in the industry and especially in the enamelling and decoration sub sector. A critical variable relates to product and design development. An outstanding fact has been the technology demand-pull movement exerted from the producers (200 firms mostly SMEs) and the consequent quick product development cycles observed in the latest sectoral fairs.     

The potency of cannabis in New Zealand from 1976 to 1996.

The potency of cannabis plant and cannabis products seized in New Zealand over the period of 20 years is studied. The earlier part of the study includes mainly imported cannabis oil and cannabis resin, and both imported and locally grown cannabis plant, that was seized by the police. The later part of the study includes little imported material. Cannabis plant is now locally grown, cannabis oil is locally manufactured and imported cannabis resin is rarely seized. The average potency of the cannabis plant available to the user has not increased over the 20 years period. Cannabis leaf contains on average 1% THC and the female flowering heads on average 3.5% THC. The average potency of cannabis oil has dropped from its peak at 34% THC in 1985 to 13% THC in 1995.     

论哈代小说的历史文化底蕴

19世纪英国小说家哈代赞扬和向往古希腊罗马时代的精神,他的这一思想倾向鲜明地表现在他的小说中游苔莎和淑等重要人物形象的身上,他的小说的故事背景和情节进展与英国古老的历史化有密切的联系。他的小说对基督教化中传统的贞操观念持批评否定态度。他把民俗化与他的小说的内容有机地结合了起来,民俗化现象常常影响到人物的命运甚至生死。     

Women in Policing: A Longitudinal Assessment of Female Officers in Supervisory Positions in the New York City Police Department

This study examined the growth in the number of female officers in supervisory and command positions (i.e., sergeant to bureau chief) in the New York City Police Department (NYPD) from 2000 to 2013. Time and annual percent changes in the number of male officers, the number of male officers in supervisory and command positions, and the number of female officers served as predictors. An ordinary least squares regression analysis failed to produce statistically significant results for the growth in the number of female officers in supervisory and command positions. The regression analysis also produced statistically nonsignificant results for changes in the level of disparity among male and female officers in supervisory and command positions. Over the past 13 years, female officers have made little progress in advancing to supervisory and command positions in the NYPD.     

Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Juvenile Drug Court: Comparisons to Traditional Probation

Juvenile Drug Courts have been in operation in the United States for over 20 years, yet their effectiveness and design have been challenged throughout the literature. Using data collected from a Juvenile Drug Court (JDC) in Southeast Texas, this project sought to determine if the JDC intervention reduced recidivism compared to a comparison sample of juvenile offenders. Results indicate that the recidivism rates of participants in the JDC were lower than the comparison group, suggesting that the Drug Court intervention was successful. The program completion rates for JDC youths were also higher for those with fewer infractions. Although the JDC youths had statistically lower infractions, the intervention overall appears to need strengthening. A close inspection of program components could document which programmatic skills are tied to efficacy, leading to the achievement of better outcomes.     

Yield and turnover of illicit indoor cannabis (Cannabis spp.) plantations in Belgium

In prosecution, Belgian judiciary currently uses outdated yield figures (28.1g per plant, sold at € 3/g at grower level) for fining illicit indoor cannabis plantations. Using state-of-the-art cultivation techniques, our growth experiments showed that yield is better expressed in g/m(2) cultivated surface area rather than in g per plant, and that yield varies significantly between different cannabis strains. It was found that the lower-bound of the one-sided 95% confidence interval of the yield of an indoor cannabis plantation can be set at 575 g/m(2). Prices and pricing mechanisms were investigated using interviews with respondents selected through snowball sampling. Results reveal that (i) the Belgian cannabis market chain is highly complex; (ii) unit prices are predominantly determined by transaction sizes; but also (iii) a set of product- and socially-related price-fixing mechanisms have an equally important role. At grower level, respondents reported prices for 1 g of dry cannabis buds to range € 3.00-4.25.     

Drug abuse in Denmark (Jutland and Funen). A forensic study based upon drugs seized in 1982-1987

Two thousand fifty-three samples submitted to forensic chemical analysis during the period 1982-1987 were characterized according to their content of narcotics and the year of seizure. Heroin and cannabis dominated the material, but a significant decrease in the number of heroin samples was observed in 1987. Amphetamine, on the contrary, hardly seen during the period 1982-1984, accounted for half of the narcotics submitted in 1987. The misuse of morphine, especially in the form of poppy capsules, was a problem for some years, whereas cocaine has not yet been a drug of abuse in Denmark. The mean concentrations of the heroin and the amphetamine samples were 30% and 44%, respectively, both for retail drugs and the entire material.     

Do Computers Make Output Harder to Measure?

In recent years, U.S. productivity growth accelerated sharply in manufacturing, but has remained sluggish in the most computer-intensive service industries. This paper explores the possibility that information technology is generating output that is increasingly hard to measure in non-manufacturing industries, which contributes to the divergence in industry productivity growth rates. Our results suggest that measurement error in 13 computer-intensive, non-manufacturing industries increased between 0.74 and 1.57 percentage points per year in the 1990s, which understates annual aggregate productivity growth by 0.10 to 0.20 percentage points in the 1990s. This adds to an estimated 0.22 to 0.30 percentage point error from the increasing share of aggregate output in these hard-to-measure industries. Thus, increasing measurement problems may understate aggregate productivity growth by an additional 0.32 to 0.50 percentage points per year in the 1990s and play an important role in understanding recent productivity trends at the industry level.     

Yield of illicit indoor cannabis cultivation in the Netherlands

To obtain a reliable estimation on the yield of illicit indoor cannabis cultivation in The Netherlands, cannabis plants confiscated by the police were used to determine the yield of dried female flower buds. The developmental stage of flower buds of the seized plants was described on a scale from 1 to 10 where the value of 10 indicates a fully developed flower bud ready for harvesting. Using eight additional characteristics describing the grow room and cultivation parameters, regression analysis with subset selection was carried out to develop two models for the yield of indoor cannabis cultivation. The median Dutch illicit grow room consists of 259 cannabis plants, has a plant density of 15 plants/m(2), and 510 W of growth lamps per m(2). For the median Dutch grow room, the predicted yield of female flower buds at the harvestable developmental stage (stage 10) was 33.7 g/plant or 505 g/m(2).     

An Unusual Method of Suicidal Ligature Strangulation

This article reports a case of suicidal strangulation by ligature of a 51‐year‐old woman with a psychiatric disorder. She had been suffering from depression with a history of previous suicidal attempt. The deceased accomplished self‐strangulation using two ligatures, with one placed above the other and consisting of a satin fabric and a shoelace. The underlying shoelace ligature was fastened by a secure fixed square knot at the back of the neck. The overlying fabric piece was tied with a half‐knot under the chin and was tightened around the neck manually. A detailed investigation and autopsy examination strongly suggests suicide. The case is of interest due to its rarity and uncommon method of execution.     

Investigations into the hypothesis of transgenic cannabis

The unusual concentration of cannabinoids recently found in marijuana samples submitted to the forensic laboratory for chemical analysis prompted an investigation into whether genetic modifications have been made to the DNA of Cannabis sativa L. to increase its potency. Traditional methods for the detection of genetically modified organisms (GMO) were used to analyze herbal cannabis preparations. Our analyses support the hypothesis that marijuana samples submitted to forensic laboratories and characterized by an abnormal level of Δ(9)-THC are the product of breeding selection rather than of transgenic modifications. Further, this research has shown a risk of false positive results associated with the poor quality of the seized samples and probably due to the contamination by other transgenic vegetable products. On the other hand, based on these data, a conclusive distinction between the hypothesis of GMO plant contamination and the other of genetic modification of cannabis cannot be made requiring further studies on comparative chemical and genetic analyses to find out an explanation for the recently detected increased potency of cannabis.