利用Phenice征判断中国人性别的研究

对已知性别中国人的干燥髋骨191副(其中男性126副,女性65副)进行现察,发现利用Phenice征判断性别的准确率为87.1%,利用腹侧弧耻骨下支的凹凸程度以及耻骨下支的宽窄判别性别准确率分别为82.3%、93.8%及85.1%,其中利用耻骨下支凹凸程度判别性别的准确率最高.并将本研究成果与其他人群进行了比较.     

A test of the phenice method for the estimation of sex

The Phenice method for the estimation of sex of an individual from the pelvis was tested on 198 individuals of known sex from the Terry collection by an individual with training in the technique, but no additional training in forensic anthropology. Sex was correctly estimated in 88.4% of all individuals and more accurately estimated in females than in males. In a subsequent test of the same individuals by the same investigator utilizing additional nonmetric pelvic indicators, overall accuracy increased to 96.5%, with slightly greater accuracy for males. The study suggests that experience likely contributes to the accuracy of the Phenice method and that for inexperienced investigators, consultation of all pelvic indicators offers an advantage over using just the three variables in the Phenice method.     

Recent human sexual dimorphism study using cephalometric plots on lateral teleradiography and discriminant function analysis

Abstract:  The examination of skull sexual dimorphism has been the subject of numerous morphologic and craniometric studies, but the disadvantage of these studies is that they are dependent on the experience of the operator and involve subjectivity. In 1996, a team from Taiwan refined the methods enabling the sex of an individual to be determined using cephalometric plots made from lateral teleradiography. To validate their work using a European population, 114 dry skulls (59 men and 55 women) were examined. Cephalometric plots were made on lateral teleradiography with an orthodontic software and 18 cephalometric variables were analyzed. Sex was determined with 95.6% accuracy using the 18 variables discriminant function. A subset of eight variables was selected and could predict sex with the same accuracy. In conclusion, it can be said that skull-sexing methods using lateral teleradiography seem always suitable but the most indicative variables could differ relative to the ethnic population concerned.     

Prognosis of sexual dimorphism with unfused hyoid bone: Artificial intelligence informed decision making with discriminant analysis

Depending on the metric and non-metric skeletal features of various bones, forensic experts proposed diverse sex identification methods. The main focus of the present study is to calculate sexual dimorphism in human unfused or disarticulated hyoid bone and compared it with studies conducted by different researchers. For this study, 293 unfused hyoid bones were accumulated and investigated from 173 male and 120 female cadavers of the northwest Indian population from the age of 15 to 80 years. Initially, discriminant analysis was performed on the dataset to predict sex and to get an idea for the crucial variables for sexual dimorphism. Later, significant variables predicted by the discriminant analysis were used for machine learning approaches to improve accuracy for sex determination. The standard scaler method is used for pre-processing of the data before machine learning analysis and to prevent overfitting and underfitting, 70 % of the whole dataset was utilized in the training of the model and the remaining data were used for testing the model. According to the discriminant analysis, body length (BL) and body height (BH) were found to be highly significant for the sex determination and predicted sex with 75.1 % accuracy. However, implementation of machine learning approaches such as the XG Boost classifier increased the accuracy to 83 % with sensitivity, and specificity scores of 0.81 and 0.84, respectively. Moreover, the ROC-AUC score achieved by the XG Boost classifier is 0.89; indicating machine learning investigation can improve the sex determination accuracy up to the appropriate standard.     

The sciatic notch/acetabular index as a discriminator of sex in European skeletal remains

The sciatic notch/acetabular index and its rule of thumb application was tested on two European skeletal series of documented sex. The results showed poor consistency between documented and estimated sex. Of the two variables comprising the index, it appeared that sciatic notch width was a particularly poor discriminator of sex. It is suggested that this may be due to differences in the relationship between sciatic notch form and body size in different ethnic groups.     

Sexual Dimorphism in Ulna: An Osteometric Study from India

Determination of sex constitutes the most important element during the identification process of human skeletal remains. Several sex‐specific features of human skeleton have been exploited for sex determination with varying reliability. This study aims to obtain sexual dimorphic standards for ulnae of the north Indian population. Eight measurements were obtained on a sample of 106 ulnae (males‐80, females‐26) in the age range of 25–65 years. The sexual dimorphism index and demarking points were calculated for all the variables. The data were then subjected to stepwise and direct discriminant function analysis. The best discriminator of sex was the maximum length (84.9%) followed by radial notch width (84%). In stepwise analysis, these two variables were selected and provided an accuracy of 88.7% (M‐87.5%, F‐92.3%). The proximal end provided a classification rate of 81.1% (M‐80%, F‐84.6%) with selection of the notch length and olecranon width.     

Sex variation in the second cervical vertebra

The second cervical vertebra can be used to estimate sex with 83% accuracy in unidentified human skeletal remains. Reported here are the necessary statistics, based on 8 dimensions taken from 400 second cervical vertebrae, for the computation of customized discriminant functions. Discriminant function equations developed using variables selected in a stepwise procedure are also presented here as an example of the usefulness of this bone in estimating sex.     

An assessment of the accuracy of discriminant function equations for sex determination of the femur and tibia from a South African population

The purpose of this study is to test the accuracy of seven discriminant function equations that have been derived by Steyn and Is?an for sex determination using measurements of the femur and tibia of South Africans of European descent (SAED). While the validity of some of the discriminant functions has been assessed by the authors who derived them, no previous independent study has been carried out to assess the accuracy of these equations. These equations have not been tested on skeletons located outside of the Gauteng province. A suite of measurements were taken on 272 femora and 256 tibiae obtained from four South African skeletal collections. The validity of each of the previously published equations for the femur was confirmed. However, two functions of the tibia showed low accuracy rates, most likely due to difficulties in recording the distal epiphyseal breadth measurement, and thus were found to be poor assessors of sex.     

Sex assessment from the carpals bones: discriminant function analysis in a 20th century Spanish sample

Sex assessment is one of the first essential steps in human identification, in both medico-legal cases and bio-archaeological contexts. Fragmentary human remains compromised by different types of inhumation or physical insults may frustrate the use of the traditional sex estimation methods, such as the analysis of the skull and pelvis. Currently, the application of discriminant functions to sex unidentified skeletal remains is steadily increasing. However, several studies have demonstrated that, due to variation in size and patterns of sexual dimorphism, discriminant function equations are population-specific [1,2,5,12,61]. In this study, in order to improve sex assessment from skeletal remains and to establish population-specific discriminant functions, the diagnostic values of the carpal bones were considered. A sample of 100 individuals (50 males and 50 females) of known sex and age was analyzed. They belong to a 20th century identified collection from the Municipal Cemetery of "San José", Granada (Spain) and housed in the Laboratory of Anthropology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada (Spain). The age of the individuals ranged between 22 and 85 years. Between four and nine measurements of each carpal bone were performed [41,59]. Discriminant function statistics showed a sex assessment accuracy as high as 97.8%. The results suggest that carpal bones can be used for assessing sex in both forensic and bio-archaeological identification procedures.     

Adapting and Applying the Phenice (1969) Adult Morphological Sex Estimation Technique to Subadults

This research evaluated whether adult morphological sex estimation methods of the innominate could be adapted and applied to subadults. The subpubic concavity, described by Phenice (1969) and revised by Klales et al. (2012), was modified for use with subadults. Two observers scored radiographic images from the PATRICIA database of 334 individuals of both sexes aged between 1.19 and 20.47 years. Score frequencies shifted from score 2 (straight) to higher frequencies of score 3 (convexity) in males and score 1 (concavity) in females with increasing age. Using ordinal logistic regression, sex classification was highest for the oldest age cohort at 97.2% and then decreased by age cohort. Interobserver error rendered a high level of agreement (0.806) using the intraclass correlation coefficient. Results indicate that the Klales method can be modified and applied to subadults to accurately estimate sex following the onset of puberty with a high degree of reliability and validity.     

Discriminant function sexing of fragmentary and complete femora: standards for contemporary Croatia

Determining sex is one of the first and most important steps in identifying decomposed corpses or skeletal remains. Previous studies have demonstrated that populations differ from each other in size and proportion and that these differences can affect metric assessment of sex. This paper establishes standards for determining sex from fragmentary and complete femurs in a modern Croatian population. The sample is composed of 195 femora (104 male and 91 female) from positively identified victims of the 1991 War in Croatia. Six discriminant functions were generated. one using seven variables, three using two variables, and two employing one variable. Results show that complete femora can be sexed with 94.4% accuracy. The same overall accuracy, with slight differences in male/female accuracy, was achieved using a combination of two variables defining the epiphyses, and with the variable maximum diameter of the femoral head.     

A study of sexual dimorphism in the femur among North Indians

Determination of sex of unknown skeleton remains is the most important step in the identification process. Racial and regional differences in the populations create and maintain specificity in their dimorphic characteristics. Moreover, considering continued secular changes in the population structure, constant revision of osteometric standards becomes mandatory. In an effort to establish osteometric standards for the femur of contemporary North Indian populations, 122 adult femora of known sex (M: 94; F: 28) were collected in the Department of Forensic Medicine, IMS, BHU, Varanasi. Eight standard parameters were measured and analyzed by discriminant function analysis using SPSS 16. The accuracy of sex prediction ranged from 70.5% to 83.6% with single variables. In stepwise analysis, epicondylar breadth, proximal breadth, and antero-posterior diameter of the lateral condyle were found to be the most discriminating variables providing an accuracy of 90.2%. The results clearly indicate the importance of the ends of femur in the determination of sex.     

Sex assessment from carpals bones: discriminant function analysis in a contemporary Mexican sample

Sex assessment is one of the first essential steps in human identification, in both medico-legal cases and bio-archaeological contexts. Fragmentary human remains compromised by different types of burial or physical insults may frustrate the use of the traditional sex estimation methods, such as the analysis of the skull and pelvis. Currently, the application of discriminant functions to sex unidentified skeletal remains is steadily increasing. However, several studies have demonstrated that, due to variation in size and patterns of sexual dimorphism, discriminant functions are population-specific. In this study, in order to improve sex assessment from skeletal remains and to establish population-specific discriminant functions, the diagnostic values of the carpal bones were considered. A sample of 136 individuals (78 males, 58 females) of known sex and age was analyzed. They belong to a contemporary identified collection from the Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Faculty of Medicine, UNAM (Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City). The age of the individuals ranged between 25 and 85 years. Between four and nine measurements of each carpal bone were taken. Independent t-tests confirm that all carpals are sexually dimorphic. Univariate measurements produce accuracy levels that range from 61.8% to 90.8%. Classification accuracies ranged between 81.3% and 92.3% in the multivariate stepwise discriminant analysis. In addition, intra- and inter-observer error tests were performed. These indicated that replication of measurements was satisfactory for the same observer over time and between observers. These results suggest that carpal bones can be used for assessing sex in both forensic and bio-archaeological identification procedures and that bone dimensions are population specific.     

Sex estimation in a Turkish population using Purkait’s triangle: a virtual approach by 3-dimensional computed tomography (3D-CT)

Sex estimation is considered one of the first steps in the forensic identification process. Morphological and morphometrical differences between males and females have been used as means for morphoscopic and metric methods on both cranial and postcranial skeletal elements. When dry skeletal elements are not available, virtual data can be used as a substitute. The present research explores 3-dimensional (3D) scans from a Turkish population to test a sex estimation method developed by Purkait (2005).Overall, 296 individuals were used in this study (158 males and 138 females). Purkait’s triangle parameters were measured on computed tomography (CT) scans obtained from both right and left femora of each patient at the Bakirkoy Dr. Sadi Konuk Training Research Hospital (Istanbul, Turkey). Intra- and inter-observer errors were assessed for all variables through technical error of measurements analysis. Bilateral asymmetry and sex differences were evaluated using parametric and non-parametric statistical approaches. Univariate and multivariate discriminant function analyses were then conducted.Observer errors demonstrated an overall agreement within and between experts, as indicated by technical error of measurement (TEM) results. No bilateral asymmetries were reported, and all parameters demonstrated a statistically significant difference between males and females. Fourteen discriminant models were generated by applying single and combined parameters, producing a total correct sex classification ranging from 78.4% to 92.6%. In addition, over 67% of the total sample was accurately classified, with 95% or greater posterior probabilities.Our study demonstrates the feasibility of 3D sex estimation using Purkait’s triangle on a Turkish population, with accuracy rates comparable to those reported in other populations. This is the first attempt to apply this method on virtual data and although further validation and standardisation are recommended for its application on dry bone, this research constitutes a significant contribution to the development of population-specific standards when only virtual data are available.

Key points

• CT analysis using Purkait’s triangle is a suitable tool for assessment of sex in unidentified individuals.
• The best overall estimation rate was achieved with the F11 model, with around 92% of accuracy.
• The results suggested 78.4% to 92.6% correct sex identification rates.
• More research is needed to expand the sample set and verify the results.

     

Accuracy Rates of Sex Estimation by Forensic Anthropologists through Comparison with DNA Typing Results in Forensic Casework

A common task in forensic anthropology involves the estimation of the biological sex of a decedent by exploiting the sexual dimorphism between males and females. Estimation methods are often based on analysis of skeletal collections of known sex and most include a research‐based accuracy rate. However, the accuracy rates of sex estimation methods in actual forensic casework have rarely been studied. This article uses sex determinations based on DNA results from 360 forensic cases to develop accuracy rates for sex estimations conducted by forensic anthropologists. The overall rate of correct sex estimation from these cases is 94.7% with increasing accuracy rates as more skeletal material is available for analysis and as the education level and certification of the examiner increases. Nine of 19 incorrect assessments resulted from cases in which one skeletal element was available, suggesting that the use of an “undetermined” result may be more appropriate for these cases.     

The efficiency of the demarking point of the femoral head as a sex determining parameter

The percentage of skeletal remains that can be sexed depends on the degree of completeness of the skeleton, the parameters that are used and the type of statistical analysis that is done. The objective of the present study was to assess the accuracy of the demarking point in sexing the femur of South African whites and blacks. One hundred pairs of femurs were randomly selected from the bone collections of each of the two racial groups. The bones were sexed by measuring the head diameters and comparing them with the corresponding demarking point values that had been previously determined. The sex that was so allocated to each bone was compared with its documented sex in the database in order to assess the accuracy of the method. The overall success rate of sex identification was 32% for both white and black populations, but the accuracy of sexing was 100%.     

Sex discrimination potential of buccolingual and mesiodistal tooth dimensions

Abstract:  Tooth crown dimensions are reasonably accurate predictors of sex and are useful adjuncts in sex assessment. This study explores the utility of buccolingual (BL) and mesiodistal (MD) measurements in sex differentiation when used independently. BL and MD measurements of 28 teeth (third molars excluded) were obtained from a group of 53 Nepalese subjects (22 women and 31 men) aged 19–28 years. Stepwise discriminant analyses were undertaken separately for both types of tooth crown variables and their accuracy in sex classification compared with one another. MD dimensions had recognizably greater accuracy (77.4–83%) in sex identification than BL measurements (62.3–64.2%)—results that are consistent with previous reports. However, the accuracy of MD variables is not high enough to warrant their exclusive use in odontometric sex assessment—higher accuracy levels have been obtained when both types of dimensions were used concurrently, implying that BL variables contribute to sex assessment to some extent. Hence, it is inferred that optimal results in dental sex assessment are obtained when both MD and BL variables are used together.     

Nonmetric sex determination from the distal and posterior humerus in black and white South Africans

The successful identification of human skeletal remains relies on proven diagnostic techniques for sex determination. This research utilized 608 individuals from South Africa (420 men, 188 women) to conduct a blind nonmetric determination of sex from three features of the distal humerus: olecranon fossa shape, angle of the medial epicondyle, and trochlear extension. A scoring system between males and females was implemented, and the aggregate score of the three features determined the estimated sex of the skeletal element in question. With all features combined, black and white South Africans were categorized successfully as either male or female 75.5% (77% accuracy rate for females, 74% accuracy rate for males). This classification rate is lower than what was found in previous studies, but suggests that characteristics of the distal humerus are still quite valuable when estimating skeletal sex. More research is needed to assess reasons for the differential expression of these traits in different populations and to determine whether the method is nonpopulation specific.     

A metric method for sex determination using the proximal femur and fragmentary hipbone

The pubic bone is considered one of the best sources of information for determining sex using skeletal remains, but can be easily damaged postmortem. This problem has led to the development of nonpelvic methods for cases when the pubic bone is too damaged for analysis. We approached this problem from a different perspective. In this article, we present an approach using new measurements and angles of the proximal femur to recreate the variation in the pubic bone. With a sample from the Terry Collection (n > 300), we use these new variables along with other traditional measurements of the femur and hipbone to develop two logistic regression equations (femur and fragmentary hipbone, and femur only) that are not population specific. Tests on an independent sample (Grant Collection; n = 37-40) with a different pattern of sexual dimorphism resulted in an allocation accuracy of 95-97% with minimal difference by sex.