Relationships Between Racial–Ethnic Identity,Self-esteem and In-group Attitudes Among First Nation Children

Positive in-group distinctiveness has been associated with self-esteem increases among adolescents and adults. To examine whether in-group biases are associated with self-esteem enhancement among minority group children, Native Canadian children (N = 414, 209 female) age 6–11 completed each year for 5 years, measures assessing their level of concrete operational thought, racial–ethnic identity, racial–ethnic centrality, implicit and explicit self-esteem, and implicit and explicit in-group attitudes. According to cognitive developmental theory, increases in the level of concrete operational thought will predict increases in racial–ethnic identity, and increases in identity should, in turn, predict more favorable in-group attitudes. Social identity theory predicts that more favorable in-group attitudes should predict increases in self-esteem. Multi-level structural equation modelling revealed support for these hypotheses. Cognitively mature children who identify closely with their group enhanced their level of self-esteem by positively differentiating between group members on dimensions that favor their group. Limitations of the present study and suggestions for future studies are also presented.     

Development of Racial–Ethnic Identity Among First Nation Children

Elements of racial–ethnic identity, often found among adolescents from racial–ethnic minority groups, have their origins in middle childhood and pre-adolescence. The present study explored the developmental trajectory of some of those components among Native Canadian children living on relatively remote First Nation communities. Children and young adolescents (N = 414,209 female) between the ages of 6–11 completed measures assessing their level of racial–ethnic identity, concrete operational thought, implicit and explicit self-esteem, implicit and explicit in-group attitudes, and the importance of their racial–ethnic identity each year for 5 years. Consistent with predictions from cognitive developmental theory, trajectory modeling revealed significant increases over time in explicit and implicit in-group attitudes, level of concrete operational thought and the importance of children’s racial–ethnic identity. However, level of racial–ethnic identity remained unchanged over time. The results are discussed in terms of cognitive-developmental theory, and the influence of living in a racially homogeneous environment on the development of racial–ethnic identity among minority group children. Studies are also suggested for future research.     

Adolescents' Intergroup Attributions: A Comparison of Two Social Identities

This study investigated the intergroup perceptions of 2 social groups. English adolescents aged 14–15 years were asked to make causal attributions for various positive and negative behaviors performed by members of an in-group and an out-group. In the first condition (n = 45), participants rated members of their own peer group and members of a peer group to which they did not belong. Participants in the second condition (n = 45) rated English adolescents and members of a national out-group (either France or Germany). Results showed that participants in both conditions reported perceptions that were biased towards the formation of a favorable in-group evaluation. However, the relationship between intergroup discrimination and identification with the in-group was in the expected direction for participants in the peer group condition only. This observation is explained in terms of the potential level of identity threat posed by the prevalent intergroup context.     

Ethnic and American Identity as Predictors of Self-Esteem Among African American,Latino, and White Adolescents

In order to examine ethnic and American identity as predictors of self-esteem among adolescents, we surveyed 669 American-born high school students (372 Latinos, 232 African Americans, and 65 Whites). Participants completed measures of self-esteem, ethnic identity, American identity, attitudes toward other groups, and demographic variables. Multiple regression analyses of self-esteem were carried out separately for each ethnic group, using ethnic and American identity, other-group attitudes, gender, age, socioeconomic status, and grade point average as predictors. Results indicated that for all groups ethnic identity was a significant predictor of self-esteem. For the White students only, American identity was a strong predictor of self-esteem and was highly correlated with ethnic identity. Other predictors varied across ethnic groups. Although ethnic identity was a significant predictor of self-esteem, it accounted for a relatively small proportion of the variance, suggesting the importance of other influences on self-esteem.     

Testing a Model of Resistance to Peer Pressure Among Mexican-Origin Adolescents

This study examined the factors associated with resistance to peer pressure toward antisocial behaviors among a sample of Mexican-origin adolescents (n=564) living in a large Southwestern city in the U.S. A model examining the influence of generational status, emotional autonomy from parents, and self-esteem on resistance to peer pressure was tested independently for boys and girls. Gender differences emerged in the factors that influenced resistance to peer pressure. Results indicated that resistance to peer pressure was influenced by generational status and emotional autonomy from parents for both boys and girls. However, self-esteem was found to influence resistance to peer pressure only for boys.Mayra Y. Bámaca is a graduate student in Family and Human Development at Arizona State University. Her research interests include adolescent development among ethnically diverse populations, the influence of contextual factors in development, parenting adolescents, and resiliency among Latino adolescents and their families. This work was based on the master’s thesis of the first author.Adriana J. Uma?a-Taylor received her Ph.D. from the University of Missouri-Columbia and is currently an Assistant Professor of Family and Human Development at Arizona State University. Her research interests include ethnic identity formation during adolescence and resilience among Latino adolescents and their families.This study was supported, in part, by a grant to the second author from the Fahs Beck Fund for Research and Experimentation of the New York Community Trust.     

Substance Use Attitudes among Urban Black Adolescents: The Role of Parent,Peer, and Cultural Factors

This study examined the influence of perceived parental, peer, and cultural factors on Black American adolescent attitudes toward substance use. One-hundred-eight Black American youth (grades 9–12) from economically disadvantaged urban neighborhoods of New York, completed self-report measures on: (a) parent-child involvement, parental supervision, and parent attitudes toward high risk behaviors; (b) peer bonds and peer attitudes toward high risk behaviors; and (c) ethnic identity, parental racial socialization, and extended family support. Youth disapproval of substance use was positively associated with higher perceived levels of peer and parental disapproval of high risk behaviors, parental supervision, and ethnic identity. Youth who reported parental messages about racial discrimination without balanced parental messages about racial pride and racial equality were more likely to approve substance use. Assistant Professor in the Department of Preventive Medicine and Community Health, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center. Her research interests include socio-cultural factors in the prevention of youth substance use, sexual risk, and violence. Director, Center for Ethics Education and Marie Ward Doty Professor of Psychology at Fordham University. Current research interests include research ethics with vulnerable populations, including children and adolescents.     

Cultural Equivalence and Cultural Variance in Longitudinal Associations of Young Adolescent Self-Definition and Interpersonal Relatedness to Psychological and School Adjustment

Ethnic group differences in the contributions of self-definition (self-worth and efficacy) and interpersonal relatedness with parents and peers to changes in psychological and school adjustment were examined among 448 White, Black, and Latino girls and boys (11–14 years of age). Self-report questionnaires and school records were evaluated for socioeconomic and ethnic group differences in patterns of change over 1 year. Overall similarity in changes over time across ethnic groups was found for relatedness, self-definition, and psychological adjustment, although Black and Latino youth reported more overall adjustment difficulties, Black youth reported less positive relationships with parents, and lower SES youth reported less positive peer relationships than others. Ethnic group differences in changes to school adjustment, even after controlling SES, suggested a cultural variation in which often cited declines in school adjustment during middle school characterize White adolescents to a greater degree than Black or Latino adolescents. Ethnicity moderated associations of relatedness and self-definition with psychological and school adjustment such that Black and Latino youth appeared particularly vulnerable to experiences that threaten closeness and trust in relationships. Results pointed to potentially important situational and cultural differences in maladaptive and adaptive developmental processes across ethnicity.     

Self-esteem,self-concept stability,and aspects of ethnic identity among minority and majority youth in the Netherlands

This study investigates the relationship between ethnic identity and self-feelings among minority and majority youth living in the Netherlands. Contrary to existing studies, not only global self-esteem is assessed but also self-concept stability, and in addition, not only ethnic group membership was studied but also different aspects of ethnic identity: ethnic group identification and ingroup evaluation. There were no significant differences between minority and majority youth for global self-esteem and for self-concept stability. In addition, among the various ethnic groups there was only a small group who reported fluctuating self-feelings. However, as predicted, minority youth identified more strongly with their ethnic group and evaluated their group more positively than Dutch contemporaries. It is concluded that research should pay attention to the different aspects involved in order to understand more fully the possible consequences of ethnic minority identity for psychological well-being.Received Ph.D. in social psychology from Erasmus University, Rotterdam. Major research interests are in self-concept and identity among minority youth, and in interethnic relations.     

Satisfaction with Life Among Adolescents from Immigrant Families in Portugal

The aims of this study were to find out the degree of satisfaction with life among adolescents with immigrant background and the factors that may be related to the level of satisfaction with life among them. The study sample consisted of 313 Angolan, Cape Verdean, and Indian adolescents (mean age = 5.00 years; SD = 1.88). The mean duration of sojourn in Portugal for the sample was 8.2 years (SD = 4.8). They were asked to fill a questionnaire with several measures, including demographic information, satisfaction with life, identity, in-group and out-group social interaction, stressful experience acculturation, perceived discrimination, mastery, self-esteem, and symptoms outcome. A control group involving 363 Portuguese youth were also included in the study. There were significant differences only between Portuguese and Angolan adolescents, in terms of level of life satisfaction. Portuguese adolescents were found to be more satisfied than Angolan adolescents from immigrant families. Whereas demographic factors accounted for just 6% of the variance explained, demographic and psychosocial factors accounted for 31% of the variance explained. Mastery was the most important factor related to life satisfaction. Gender, self-esteem, and living in an ethnically homogeneous neighborhood were also found to be predictors of satisfaction with life.     

African American and White Adolescents' Strategies for Managing Cultural Diversity in Predominantly White High Schools

This study examined 3 strategies that African American and White participants (9th–12th grade) used to manage cultural diversity: multicultural, separation, and assimilation/acculturation strategies. Older African American adolescents endorsed multicultural strategies (integration/fusion and alternation) more strongly and separation less strongly than their younger African American peers. The reverse pattern was found for White adolescents. With respect to peer relations, separation and multicultural strategies were associated with cross-ethnic peer relations for both African American and White respondents. For African American adolescents, multicultural strategy endorsement was positively related to ethnic identity; particularly for older compared with younger African American adolescents, assimilation/acculturation was a strategy associated with a less strongly positive sense of ethnic identity. The results are discussed in relation to forces supporting adolescents' strategy development, and the implications of strategy usage for adjustment in predominantly White schools.     

Ethnic Self-labeling in Young American Adults from Chinese Backgrounds

Self-reported ethnic labels were examined among 242 young American adults with Chinese ancestry (age range = 18–32 years, M = 23.97; 73% female, 27% male). Ethnic labels fell under broad categories whereby 22% reported heritage national labels (e.g., Chinese), 35% added American to their heritage national label (e.g., Chinese American), and 42% reported panethnic-American labels (e.g., Asian American). Logistic regressions revealed that generation and ethnic exploration significantly predicted the odds of choosing heritage national and heritage national-American labels. Ethnic label choice was not associated with average differences in the ethnic diversity of youths’ community or peer group, or with heritage language proficiency. However, label choice was associated with generation, ethnic identity, and English proficiency. Ethnic labels also were linked to self-esteem and positive relationships with Asian peers, with most optimal outcomes reported by youth who chose heritage national-American labels.

Examining Ethnic Identity and Self-Esteem Among Biracial and Monoracial Adolescents

The psychological well-being and ethnic identity of biracial adolescents are largely underrepresented topics in current scholarly literature, despite the growing population of biracial and multiracial individuals in the United States. This study examined self-esteem, ethnic identity, and the relationship between these constructs among biracial and monoracial adolescents (n = 3282). Using analysis of covariance, significant differences emerged between biracial and monoracial adolescents on both a measure of self-esteem and a measure of ethnic identity. Specifically, biracial adolescents showed significantly higher levels of self-esteem than their Asian counterparts, but significantly lower self-esteem than Black adolescents. Furthermore, biracial adolescents scored significantly higher than Whites on a measure of ethnic identity, but scored lower than their Black, Asian, and Latino peers on the same measure. Finally, correlational analyses revealed a significant and positive relationship between ethnic identity and self-esteem for all groups.     

Personal Identity Development in Hispanic Immigrant Adolescents: Links with Positive Psychosocial Functioning,Depressive Symptoms,and Externalizing Problems

The present study was designed to examine trajectories of personal identity coherence and confusion among Hispanic recent-immigrant adolescents, as well as the effects of these trajectories on psychosocial and risk-taking outcomes. Personal identity is extremely important in anchoring young immigrants during a time of acute cultural change. A sample of 302 recently immigrated (5 years or less in the United States at baseline) Hispanic adolescents (M_age?=?14.51 years at baseline; SD?=?0.88 years, range 14–17) from Miami and Los Angeles (47?% girls) completed measures of personal identity coherence and confusion at the first five waves of a six-wave longitudinal study; and reported on positive psychosocial functioning, depressive symptoms, and externalizing problems at baseline and at Time 6. Results indicated that identity coherence increased linearly across time, but that there were no significant changes in confusion over time and no individual differences in confusion trajectories. Higher baseline levels of, and improvements in, coherence predicted higher levels of self-esteem, optimism, and prosocial behavior at the final study timepoint. Higher baseline levels of confusion predicted lower self-esteem, greater depressive symptoms, more aggressive behavior, and more rule breaking at the final study timepoint. These results are discussed in terms of the importance of personal identity for Hispanic immigrant adolescents, and in terms of implications for intervention.     

Prospective Links Between Ethnic Socialization,Ethnic and American Identity,and Well-Being Among Asian-American Adolescents

Ethnic socialization and ethnic identity have been related to positive outcomes, but little research has examined these associations longitudinally. This three-wave study prospectively linked socialization messages at Time 1, ethnic identity and American identity at Time 2, and self-esteem and depressive symptoms at Time 3 in 147 (58 % female; 25 % first-generation) Asian-American adolescents. The results indicated positive links between cultural socialization messages and ethnic and American identity, though the latter association was significant only for females. Ethnic identity was positively related to self-esteem, and mediated the positive effect of cultural socialization on self-esteem. The promotion of mistrust was positively linked to self-esteem and negatively related to ethnic identity, though this latter association was significant for foreign-born youth only. Our findings highlight the importance of elucidating prospective links in identity development, and examining gender and generational differences within them.     

Gender,ethnic group,and grade differences in psychosocial functioning during middle adolescence?

Prior research has found significant differences between ethnic groups in identity formation. However, most investigations have either failed to include or adjust for SES level differences. To reassess possible differences in psychosocial development between African American, American Indian, Mexican American, and White American 10th–12th grade male and female adolescents (n=123), ethnic groups were compared according to passive-active dimensions delineated in identity, sex role orientation, and locus of control. A series of analyses of covariance (using education level of father and mother as covariates) were computed using ethnicity, grade, and gender in the factorial model as main effects. Consistent with previous research, White adolescents scored significantly lower than the other groups on ideological foreclosure. Overall, however, more similarity than differences between the four ethnic groups were found. Older students were observed to be more psychosocially mature, and males scored higher than females on identity diffusion. Marginal support was gained for the proposed passive-active delineations of the dependent variables.Partial support for this project was provided to Gerald Adams through funding from the Utah State Agricultural Experiment Station, Logan, Utah, and the Social Science and Humanities Research Council, Ottawa, Canada.Received Ph.D. in developmental psychology from Department of Psychology, Utah State University. Research interests: identity formation, ego strength and psychosocial maturity in adolescence, interfaith dating and courtship, and ethnic contexts of development.(Visiting Professor, Division of Family Resources, West Virginia University, 1994–1995 academic year.) Received Ph.D. in human development and family studies, Pennsylvania State University. Research interests: personality and social development in adolescence, identity formation, parent-adolescent relationships, and adolescent social problems.     

The Individual Characteristics,Ethnic Identity,and Cultural Orientation of Successful Secondary School Students of Turkish and Moroccan Background in The Netherlands

The present study focuses on the individual characteristics, cultural orientation, and ethnic identity of academically successful 17-year-old adolescents of Turkish and Moroccan background in the Netherlands. One hundred and six successful and less successful adolescents of Turkish, Moroccan, and Dutch background participated in the study. The successful ethnic minority students were expected to be highly motivated and determined to succeed. They were thought to have more problems with their ethnic identity as well. It was concluded that success might be explanable in terms of a more positive attitude toward the Dutch society. The successful students did not need to be highly motivated to be academically successful. Although the successful Turkish and Moroccan background students had somewhat more doubts and more negative feelings about belonging to their ethnic group, this does not seem to lead to identity problems.     

Ethnic Identity and Mental Health in American Indian Youth: Examining Mediation Pathways Through Self-esteem,and Future Optimism

Mental health functioning in American Indian youth is an understudied topic. Given the increased rates of depression and anxiety in this population, further research is needed. Using multiple group structural equation modeling, the current study illuminates the effect of ethnic identity on anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, and externalizing behavior in a group of Lumbee adolescents and a group of Caucasian, African American, and Latino/Hispanic adolescents. This study examined two possible pathways (i.e., future optimism and self-esteem) through which ethnic identity is associated with adolescent mental health. The sample (N = 4,714) is 28.53 % American Indian (Lumbee) and 51.38 % female. The study findings indicate that self-esteem significantly mediated the relationships between ethnic identity and anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms, and externalizing behavior for all racial/ethnic groups (i.e., the total sample). Future optimism significantly mediated the relationship between ethnic identity and externalizing behavior for all racial/ethnic groups and was a significant mediator between ethnic identity and depressive symptoms for American Indian youth only. Fostering ethnic identity in all youth serves to enhance mental health functioning, but is especially important for American Indian youth due to the collective nature of their culture.     

Growing Up Too Soon? Parentification Among Immigrant and Native Adolescents in Germany

Parentification (adolescents' adoption of adult family roles by providing instrumental or emotional support for their parents) is assumed to be higher in immigrant than native families. An often discussed reason for parentification is the adolescent-parent acculturation gap in immigrant families whereby immigrant adolescents acculturate faster and outperform their parents socio-culturally. The aim of this multi-informant, multi-group study was to investigate levels, predictors, and psychosocial outcomes of instrumental and emotional parentification. The sample comprised 197 native (adolescents: mean age 14.7 years, 52% female) and 185 ethnic German immigrant (adolescents: mean age 15.7 years, 60% female) mother-adolescent dyads. Results revealed higher levels of emotional and instrumental parentification among immigrant adolescents. Parents' partnership dissatisfaction predicted instrumental and emotional parentification only in the native German sample. Among immigrants, language brokering related to instrumental and emotional parentification, and a larger mother-adolescent acculturation gap was associated with higher levels of emotional parentification. The positive psychosocial outcome, self-efficacy, was predicted by instrumental parentification in both adolescent groups. Exhaustion, the negative outcome, however, was related to higher levels of instrumental and lower levels of emotional parentification only in the immigrant group. The results of this study highlight that family systems can change due to migration to another country, with adolescents becoming more responsible for family matters than is normative for their age. However, only some of these premature responsibilities carry a risk of maladaptation, with others seeming to provide opportunities for positive developmental growth.     

Mother-Adolescent Language Proficiency and Adolescent Academic and Emotional Adjustment Among Chinese American Families

This study examined the role of adolescents’ and mothers’ self-reports of English and heritage language proficiency in youth’s academic and emotional adjustment among 444 Chinese American families. Adolescents who were proficient in English tended to exhibit higher reading achievement scores, math achievement scores, and overall GPA. Mothers who were English proficient tended to have children with higher academic achievement and fewer depressive symptoms. Results also indicated that adolescents’ heritage language maintenance was associated with positive adjustment, particularly amongst foreign-born youth and for youth whose parents were highly proficient in the heritage language. Mother-adolescent match in heritage language proficiency was related to higher math achievement scores and overall GPA. Additionally, higher heritage language proficiency was associated with fewer depressive symptoms for foreign-born but not U.S.-born youth. Overall, the findings suggest that proficiency in both the English and heritage language may confer advantages to Chinese American youth.

Gender Differences Among Adolescents in Family,and Peer Influences on Body Dissatisfaction,Weight Loss,and Binge Eating Behaviors

The present study examined perceived family and peer influences on body dissatisfaction, weight loss, and binge eating behaviors in adolescents. Three hundred and six girls aged 11 to 17 years (M = 13.66, SD = 1.12) and 297 boys aged 11 to 18 years (M = 13.89, SD = 1.13) completed a questionnaire that examined the direct influence and quality of family and peer relationships on body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Direct influences of family and peers, rather than the quality of these relationships, predicted body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in adolescent boys and girls. Interesting differences were found between girls and boys in the nature of the influences and in the way they were expressed. In particular, parental and peer discussion and encouragement of weight loss predicted disordered eating behaviors in girls, while maternal and peer encouragement predicted binge eating and weight loss behaviors in boys. Fathers played a salient role in the expression of more severe forms of eating problems, while siblings played a small yet significant role in cognitive restraint among girls. The findings highlight gender differences in the importance of significant others in the expression of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in adolescence.