The role of common law in environmental policy

This paper discusses the role of common law in environmental policy. It is shown that common law actually tends towards efficiency only under quite restrictive conditions — conditions that are fulfilled only for very few, less important environmental problems. Moreover, in these cases common law need not even be efficient because an efficient solution can be negotiated once the allocation of rights is undisputed. Furthermore, common law neglects important distributional and political questions and is biased towards the status quo. Therefore, dealing with today's environmental problems cannot be left to the common law process but necessitates legislative action.     

The international rule of law

ABSTRACT

The rule of law is a moral ideal that protects distinctive legal values such as generality, equality before the law, the independence of courts, and due process rights. I argue that one of the main goals of an international rule of the law is the protection of individual and state autonomy from the arbitrary interference of international institutions, and that the best way to codify this protection is through constitutional rules restraining the reach of international law into the internal affairs of a state. State autonomy does not have any intrinsic value or moral status of its own. Its value is derivative, resulting from the role it plays as the most efficient means of protecting autonomy for individuals and groups. Therefore, the goal of protecting state autonomy form the encroachment of international law will have to be constrained by, and balanced against the more fundamental goal of an international rule of law, the protection of the autonomy of individual persons, best realized through the entrenchment of basic human rights.     

Tradable Permits for Common‐Pool Resources: An Assessment

Scholars often attribute deterioration in common‐pool resources (CPRs) to ill‐defined property rights and suggest privatization and tradable permit markets as a solution to the commons problem. CPRs are heterogeneous, differing in physical characteristics and use patterns. Regulating their use requires tailored policy solutions that cohere with these characteristics. This paper examines factors that contribute to a well‐performing tradable permit market. While the literature offers rich empirical analyses of individual tradable permit markets, it has not provided an analytical framework enabling comparative analysis of these markets. This paper develops and employs an analytical framework for comparing across markets. The comparative analysis of market performance suggests that markets are not successful in all environmental problems and all demand situations. Further, it shows that even some markets frequently cited as exemplary successes have been that for nonmarket‐related reasons. On the other hand, this comparative analysis identifies sources of success for markets that partial analytical frameworks would have predicted to fail.     

The Progressive Ratcheting of Environmental Laws: Impact on Public Management

One of the problem-making tendencies in environmental policymaking has been an incremental approach to regulation and control. Either because the full dimensions of an environmental problem are not perceived or because political resistance compels step-by-step action, environmental controls tend to be applied progressively, beginning with nominal, largely ineffectual, retroactive declarations. Failing to meet objectives, laws are toughened and extended year by year until the severty of sanctions begins to defeat their intended effects. The fractionized state of environmental law, focusing on specific problems of pollution and subject to changes in interpretation, makes observance and enforcement difficult. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 could have facilitated the unification of environmental policy; unfortunately presidents and congresses have not chosen to use it for this purpose. Meanwhile, because environmental protection per se is relatively new to public law and policy and has few roots in the common law, private citizens aggrieved by political obstruction of their expectations have appealed to the courts for relief and compensation. Conservative courts have granted this relief under the "taking" clause of the Constitution. Extraordinary measures in constitutional law may be necessary to resolve an impasse in public policy resulting from conflict between public interests and private rights as interpreted by the judiciary.     

中央权威的宪政之道

中央权威是指中央权力在国家权力结构中所享有的独占性威望和最高强制力。中央权威的宪政之道是对国家法治战略之中央权力宪法安排的解读。社会主义法治意识形态是我国宪法精神的集中表达,是央地权力共同的价值基础和信仰支撑;从政策治国向依法治国转变是宪法之依法治国战略的基本要求,它为中央权威提供了更具连续性和公正性的合法性基础;落实全国人大及其常委会的最高监督权和加强中央司法权威的控制力,是宪法国家权力结构的内在需求,也是加强中央权威的根本宪政途径;宪法意义上的地方分权是地方权力对中央权威的一种回应性诉求,也是宪政权力纵向配置的一种内在机理。     

制约和监督权力的三大对策

腐败的实质就是公共权力的非公共运用,即被用来谋取私人利益。防止公共权力非公共运用的关键之点,是对权力实施制约和监督。实现对权力的制约和监督,应做到以法制权、以德制权、以权制权和以民制权。具体来说可从三个方面着手:一是筑牢思想防线。要激发领导干部自我制约和自我监督的内在自觉性,在思想上筑牢道德防线、纪律防线和法律防线。二是推进阳光用权。让权力在阳光下运行,接受民主监督,从而得到公众的理解和支持,赢得公众的信赖和拥护。三是坚持制度管权。制度管权是法治国家制约权力的通行法则,制度要具体实在,针对问题、解决问题,并且确保执行,只有这样才能做到把权力关进制度的笼子里。     

新型人格权的塑造及其法律方法救济

转型社会中，各种新型人格利益层出不穷。但在人格利益转化为人格权上，却存在着利益泛化为权利以及权利的绝对化等问题。这一方面是因为在权利的确定中，不能有效运用法治思维进行新型人格权的塑造；另一方面，在权利的保护上，长期的“立法中心主义”造成诸多新型人格权利难以通过司法程序有效救济的僵局。所以，新型人格权的塑造及其保护必须诉诸“司法中心主义”的立场转换，并把新型人格权利的自然权利属性和伦理价值诉求变为可予以司法救济的法治诉求。此过程主要表现为裁决中的法律方法运用。如通过法律解释方法探寻案件裁判的法律依据；通过利益衡量方法明确权利泛化及冲突的权衡标准；以及通过法律修辞方法拨开笼罩在典型人格利益纠纷案上的权力或道德修辞迷雾。     

论中国纳税人宪法权利的保护

权利与义务相对应是市场经济的基本法则。随着我国市场经济的发展,我们应该转变以前那种只重视征税而不注重保护纳税人权利的观念。纳税人的权利包括宪法和税法上的两个层次,当然宪法上纳税人的权利是税法上纳税人权利的基础,文章介绍了纳税人的宪法权利,我国纳税人宪法权利的缺失,以及保护完善纳税人宪法权利的对策:一是确立税收法定主义;二是实现税的相对公平;三是实现税的相对公开。     

Religion and Fundamental Rights in European Politics: Convergences and Divisions at the European Parliament

European legislators must increasingly deal with issues related to fundamental rights. Religion is a frequent topic obliging them to do so. It is not directly part of the EU’s competences but is a source of values underlying policy choices and a tricky political object. Relying on the findings of a survey about what Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) believe and what they do with these beliefs, the article analyzes potential tensions created by religion in the implementation of human rights by the EU. A first part shows how and to what extent European law meets religion, and how it leaves ample room for flexibility but also for divergent interpretations. A second part states that MEPs agree largely on the principle of separation between politics and religion, but may be divided when it comes to drawing boundaries between the two domains. The conclusion points out the limits of the rule of law to prevent conflicts and suggests that human rights may inspire support as well as cause resistance to Europeanization.     

Pigou, Coase, common law, and environmental policy: Implications of the calculation debate

The implications of the calculation debate are explored for Pigouvian, Coasean, and common-law liability approaches to externality problems. There is no escaping Hayekian-Misean information problems, but the institutional setting within which environmental policies are resolved affects the domain of third-party calculation. The calculation required is likely to be significantly less under common-law arrangements than under administrative processes. The primary implication for environmental policy is that increased reliance on competitive market processes and the common law in copying with externality problems may be more effective than attempts to improve current administrative approaches.     

市场经济现代转型中的法治与责任政府

政府在我国市场经济的建立和转型中发挥着重要的作用.然而诺斯"国家悖论"所揭示的两难困境告诫我们在充分利用政府作用的同时,必须对行政权力的不当干预和政府失责的负面影响加以防范.我国已建立了初级市场经济并正在向现代市场经济转型,现代市场经济的基础是法治,现代市场经济转型的关键在于法治的确立.而法治下的政府应该是一个责任政府,我国要顺利实现市场经济的现代转型,建立良好的市场秩序和有效保护产权,就要建立责任政府.法治是责任政府不可或缺的制度保障,责任政府是法治理念在公共行政领域的体现.责任政府作为现代市场经济体系的重要组成部分,是一切向现代市场经济转型国家必须确立的政治基础.责任政府需要一系列制度构架确保政府对人民责任关系的确立.责任政府制度构架的基本方面包括:政府责任规范体制、政府责任履行的评价制度和政府责任的问责制度.     

私法在乡村治理法治化中的独特功能

针对如何构建乡村治理体系所涉法治,既有研究多围绕《中华人民共和国村民委员会组织法》等公法展开,故存在不足,亟待考察私法能否发挥某些独特功能。鉴于公法在培养村民的基本法治意识上存在一定的不足,同时,村民与私法的现实联系更为密切,尤其是考虑到私法严格奉行“私法自治”根本原则,由该原则所引申的“私法自治”“合法私利”以及“德法融合”等重要法治意识,不但有益于培养村民的基本法治意识,而且将极大促进在乡村治理进程中,对相通的、根本性的村民法治意识的良好培养。     

论社会主义法治一体建设

社会主义法治一体建设的实质，是统筹协调社会主义法治的各个领域、各个环节、各个层面，把社会主义法治视为一个整体，以一体建设的思维，全面推进社会主义法治。社会主义法治一体建设具有多方面的指向。从目标来看，法治国家、法治政府、法治社会需要一体建设。从主体来看，依法治国、依法执政、依法行政需要一体建设。从环节来看，科学立法、严格执法、公正司法、全民守法需要一体建设。此外，依法治国与以德治国也需要一体建设。社会主义法治一体建设既是社会主义的法治世界观，也是社会主义的法治方法论，可以在社会主义法治实践中得到普遍运用。     

Travails of Truth: Achieving Justice for Victims of Impunity in Nigeria

Following its transition to democracy from an authoritarianmilitary rule marked by gross violations of human rights, Nigeriaestablished the Human Rights Violations Investigations Commission(HRVIC) in 1999. This paper critically examines the contributionsof the HRVIC, popularly known as the ‘Oputa Panel,’to the field of transitional justice and the rule of law. Itsets out the process of establishing the Commission, its mandateand how this mandate was interpreted during the course of theCommission's work. The challenges faced by the Oputa Panel,particularly those that relate to its legal status and relationshipwith the judiciary, are analyzed in an attempt to draw usefulguidelines from these challenges for other truth commissions.Recourse by powerful individuals to the judicial process ina bid to shield themselves from the HRVIC merits particularreview as it raises questions regarding the transformation ofthe judiciary and the rule of law in the wake of an authoritarianregime.     

联合国国际人权两公约之背景,内容与意义

联合国国际人权两以约是国际社会在人权保护方面最重要的两个公约。两公约诉产生过程,内容和执行体系,都表明国际社会在人权保护领域既普遍的共识,也有尖锐的分歧。两公约本身即是求同存异的产物,它是尽可能地融合了东西方国家对人权的不同理解,充实和发展了《联合国宪章》中关于基本人权的内容和为人权领域的国际合作提供了国际法依据。但是,人权进行国际法领域,并不意味着可以把人权作为攻击或干涉他国内政的工具,借口不人     

走向服务政府:洛克有限政府理论及其启示

随着国家治理现代化建设的推进,我国政府治理模式经历了管理型政府向服务型政府的转变.洛克有限政府理论在保护公民权利、实现政治国家与市民社会互动等方面具有积极的现实意义,但有限政府不一定等同于服务政府,在面对不同时期、不同国情下的市场失灵问题以及权衡德治与法治、自由与平等、作为与不作为等现实问题时,有限政府理论具有自身的局限性.而服务型政府必然是一个有限政府,洛克所提出的自然权利、社会契约以及权利让渡所构成的有限政府理论,对于新时代构建服务政府仍然有很强的借鉴意义.     

Economic liberalisation,market institutions and labour rights

What effect do pro‐market economic policies have on labour rights? Despite significant debate in policy and academic circles about the consequences of economic liberalisation, little is known about the labour rights effects of pro‐market policies. Extant literature has focused only on the possible outcomes of market‐liberalising policies, such as trade and investment flows, rather than directly assessing market‐friendly policies and institutions. Moreover, this line of research has found mixed results on how these outcomes influence labour conditions. To provide a comprehensive assessment of this linkage, this article combines data on five distinct policy areas associated with economic liberalisation with data on labour rights for the period 1981–2012. The results indicate that pro‐market policies – except the ones involving rule of law and secure property rights – undermine labour rights. Thus while there are some positive economic and political outcomes associated with market‐supporting policies, economic liberalisation comes at the cost of respect for labour rights.     

Implementing International Human Rights Law at Home: Domestic Politics and the European Court of Human Rights

The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) boasts one of the strongest oversight systems in international human rights law, but implementing the ECtHR??s rulings is an inherently domestic and political process. This article begins to bridge the gap between the Court in Strasbourg and the domestic process of implementing the Court??s rulings by looking at the domestic institutions and politics that surround the execution of the ECtHR??s judgments. Using case studies from the UK and Russia, this article identifies two factors that are critical for the domestic implementation of the Court??s rulings: strong domestic, democratic institutions dedicated to implementing the ECtHR??s judgments and an overarching sense of responsibility to set a good example at home and abroad for respecting human rights and the rule of law. This article concludes with a discussion of the steps necessary to facilitate better implementation of the ECtHR??s rulings.     

加强法治建设是首都维稳工作的重要途径

维稳越来越成为地方政府的重要任务。针对首都维稳呈现的重人治轻法治的现象,提出必须加强法治建设才能实现彻底维稳。建议采取强化立法、完善行政法律解释体系、强化监督、对疑难信访案件公信听证等措施,推进法治以预防和化解矛盾,实现法治状态下的长期稳定。     

Towards a New Politics: Citizenship and Rights in Contemporary Argentina

The emergence of a human rights movement represented a cultural turning point in many Latin American societies. The movement's struggle acted as a catalyst for political learning, triggering a profound renovation of the region's democratic traditions. The most impressive development has been the emergence of a rights-oriented discourse that reunites two elements that populist forms of self-understanding had kept separate: democracy and the rule of law. Cultural innovation gave birth to a new form of politicization that greatly differs from the movementist and corporatist practices of past populist movements, for the former is guided by a liberal concern: establishing clear institutional boundaries between state and civil society. Through the analysis of a series of citizens' initiatives and movements, the paper analyzes this new form of politicization and its contribution to the authorization and effectivization of rights as institutions.