Intoxicated eyewitnesses: prevalence and procedures according to England’s police officers

Despite the apparent role alcohol plays in criminal offences, there is at present no evidence available as to the extent of the problem of intoxicated witnesses within England. To address this lack of research, police officers from seven constabularies completed an online survey addressing issues such as the prevalence of intoxicated witnesses, how officers determine intoxication, the procedures employed and their effectiveness. Officers indicated that intoxicated witnesses were a common, to very common, occurrence with most officers determining intoxication through physical symptoms and the witness’s own admission. In terms of interviewing witnesses, the majority of officers indicated that initial details were taken whilst witnesses were intoxicated, but the evidential interview was taken when sober. Officers also indicated that if the witness was intoxicated then the case was less likely to proceed to court and that officers viewed the witness as less accurate. These findings are considered from a criminal justice perspective and discussed in relation to future research.     

Alcohol intoxicated eyewitnesses' memory of intimate partner violence

Alcohol affects memory in many, and mostly negative, ways. This is a problem in legal contexts as many witnesses are alcohol intoxicated when taking part of the critical event. However, research is sparse regarding how, and under what circumstances, the reports of alcohol intoxicated witnesses differ from those of sober witnesses. This study investigated whether alcohol intoxicated and sober eyewitnesses differ regarding completeness, accuracy, and type of information reported, as well as whether gender influenced these variables. Eighty-seven healthy men (n = 44) and women (n = 43) received either an alcoholic beverage (0.7 g/kg) or a control (juice) in a laboratory setting before viewing a film picturing intimate partner violence. Ten minutes after viewing the film, they were interviewed. Reports by alcohol intoxicated women were less complete, but as accurate, as sober women's. In contrast, intoxicated and sober men did not differ regarding completeness or accuracy. Furthermore, compared with sober women, intoxicated women reported fewer actions but no difference was found between the groups regarding reported objects. At this moderate dose, alcohol affected women's reports more than men's, which may be because alcohol affects attention and memory consolidation more clearly at a lower dose for women than for men.     

Now <Emphasis Type="Italic">Everyone</Emphasis> Looks the Same: Alcohol Intoxication Reduces the Own-Race Bias in Face Recognition

Several factors influence the reliability of eyewitness identification evidence. Typically, recognition for same-race faces is better than for different-race faces (the own-race bias), and alcohol intoxication decreases overall face recognition accuracy. This research investigated how alcohol intoxication influences the own-race bias. Asian and European participants completed tests of recognition memory for Asian and European faces when either mildly intoxicated (mean breath alcohol concentration of .05) or when sober. Compared to their sober counterparts, intoxicated participants showed a reduced own-race bias. Specifically, alcohol intoxication had a larger negative effect on the recognition of same-race faces compared to different-race faces. The legal and theoretical implications of these results are discussed.     

Mock jurors' perceptions of identifications made by intoxicated eyewitnesses

Abstract

Psychology research has generally neglected intoxicated eyewitnesses. The current study addressed this need by exploring mock jurors' perceptions of intoxicated witnesses. Undergraduate participants read summarized sexual or aggravated battery cases in which either the victim or a bystander identified the defendant under varying intoxication levels. They answered questions about the case and provided verdicts. Participants were sensitive to the effect that intoxication may have on witnesses' cognitive ability, but not to varying degrees of intoxication. Neither the role of the eyewitness nor the type of crime committed had an effect on perceptions of witness impairment. Participants' perceptions of witness impairment informed identification credibility ratings, and credibility assessments affected verdicts. Impairment and credibility ratings fully mediated intoxication's effect on verdicts. Unlike much prior research, our results suggest that mock jurors can consider potentially important witness information when rendering verdicts.     

Attributions of responsibility,blame and justifiability to a perpetrator and victim in an acquaintance rape scenario: the influence of Marijuana intoxication

Abstract

Marijuana is a commonly used illicit drug by young adults and has been implicated in about one third of sexual assaults. However, the influence of Marijuana intoxication on rape attributions has not been previously investigated. This study examined the effects of perpetrator and victim Marijuana intoxication and participant sex on rape attributions. Young adults (N = 285) read an acquaintance rape scenario where Marijuana intoxication was manipulated and completed measures of perpetrator (responsibility, blame and justifiability) and victim attributions (responsibility and blame). The results revealed that an intoxicated, compared to sober, perpetrator was attributed less responsibility for his sexual aggression. When the victim was intoxicated, compared to sober, the perpetrator and victim were attributed less and more blame for the assault, respectively. These findings demonstrate that, irrespective of perceiver sex, Marijuana intoxication, like alcohol intoxication, results in an attributional double standard in favour of the perpetrator.     

Low blood alcohol levels. Experimental study on attention and body sway control functions

Objective

Attempting to prevent alcohol-related road accidents requires sensitive, reliable and easy-to-use methods and instruments for ascertaining drivers’ state of intoxication. This paper examines the scientific validity of a method for assessing psychomotor performance combining measurement of neurosensory functions with the effect of low blood alcohol levels: body sway control and attention functions.

Methods

A double-blind, placebo-controlled study, with cross-over and random distribution on the effects of low blood alcohol levels. Psychomotor performance and body sway control were studied in 16 healthy volunteers after they had drunk a small dose of ethyl alcohol (0.5 g/kg) or placebo. Neurosensory and psychomotor functions were assessed by a Divided Attention Test (DAT), composed of the association between one test exploring short-term memory (Memory Test) and one exploring attention (Response Competition Test). Alterations in body sway were recorded by stabilometry. Tests were administered at 30, 60, 120 and 180 min after intake of alcohol. After a wash-out period of at least one week, subjects repeated the test after taking a second dose of alcohol or placebo. Blood alcohol concentrations were monitored by analysis of concentrations in expired air.

Results

A BAC under 50 mg/dL did not reveal statistically significant impaired memory capacities or motor coordination. Instead, statistically significant oscillations of body sway were measured (p-values = 0.0001), especially when stabilometry was associated with deviant stimuli like those of the DAT (p-values = 0.0001).

Conclusions

This study showed: (1) impaired performance, at the limits of statistical significance, on a complex psychometric test like the DAT; (2) some cognitive, attentive and visual perceptive functions are not compromised or at least not in a statistically significant manner; (3) a considerable alteration in the capacity for control of body sway after intake of alcohol becomes further and massively impaired when deviant stimuli are given; (4) this impairment appeared early and was more marked 1 and 2 h after intake of alcohol.     

THE CULTURAL CONTEXT OF ADOLESCENT DRINKING AND VIOLENCE IN 30 EUROPEAN COUNTRIES*

Cross‐national variation in the effect of alcohol on adolescent violence is examined with survey data from 30 European countries. The data are analyzed using a method that makes it possible to isolate the nonspurious portion of the alcohol–violence relationship in different countries. In addition, multilevel models are used to estimate the effects of region and contextual measures of adolescent drinking on the alcohol–violence relationship. The evidence suggests that drinking has a strong effect on adolescent violence in the Nordic and Eastern European countries but has little or no effect in the Mediterranean countries. In the Mediterranean countries, where adolescents drink frequently but in moderation, the relationship between alcohol use and violence is almost entirely spurious. Findings suggest that the observed pattern is due to regional differences in the tendency for adolescents and their peers to drink to intoxication, as well as in their tendency to become intoxicated in settings where adult guardianship is absent.     

Fatigue in single car fatal accidents

In a reexamination of 101 fatal single car accidents without any reasonable explanation besides possible intoxication, 50 drivers were found to have been intoxicated with a blood alcohol content (BAC) of more than 0.08 mg% at the time of the accident. Thirty-seven of these accidents happened between 2400 h and 0600 h in the morning and 21 of the drivers were found to be intoxicated. The remaining 64 accidents took place during the rest of the day and 21 drivers were found to be intoxicated. By comparing this apparent over-representation of intoxicated drivers in night-time accidents with that of a control group of no less than 15.923 drivers it was possible to convert this over-representation into a significant under-representation indicating another human accident factor specific to night-time traffic. It is concluded that fatigue is an often overlooked but most obvious cause to an otherwise unexplainable accident in the night-time traffic.     

A controlled study of the time-course of breath alcohol concentration after moderate ingestion of ethanol following a social drinking session

This paper evaluates the breath alcohol concentration (BrAC), nausea (feeling of being slightly intoxicated) and subjective driving performance after ingesting a moderate dose of alcohol in the presence of a light meal, which intends to approach a social drinking setting. 119 healthy individuals (69 males and 50 females, aged 21.7+/-3.0) ingested three glasses of wine (95mL each) and their BrAC was determined by an Alcotest 7410 at 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 and 120min post-drinking. 46% of females and no male subjects exceeded a BrAC of 0.25mg/L, the legal limit for driving fixed by some Western countries. 53% of the study population felt nausea during the experimental session and 20% self-reported impairment of their driving skills. In both cases these subjective effects were more pronounced in females. The major determinants of mean BrAC were time post-drinking, gender (male) and body mass index (BMI), all these variables being inversely associated. Females and individuals with a BMI lower than 22.5kg/m(2) were at an increased risk of exceeding the legal limit of BrAC. The feeling of nausea was significantly associated with gender (females), the ingestion of up to 2 drinks on weekdays, and having exceeded a BrAC of 0.25mg/L during the experimental study. The main predictor of self-perception of impaired driving skills was the feeling of nausea, followed by a BrAC in excess of 0.25mg/L. In conclusion, both females and subjects with lower BMI are at an increased risk of exceeding the legal limit of BrAC after moderate alcohol consumption resembling a social drinking setting.     

Fatal Wrong‐Way Collisions on New Mexico’s Interstate Highways, 1990–2004

Abstract: Medical examiner files from 1990 through 2004 were reviewed to identify fatalities caused by drivers traveling the wrong direction on interstate highways and identify risk factors and prevention strategies. Other fatal nonpedestrian interstate motor vehicle crashes served as a comparison group. Data abstracted included decedent demographics, driver/passenger status, seatbelt use, blood alcohol concentration, weather and light at time of occurrence and types of vehicles involved. Of 1171, 79 (6.7%) interstate motor vehicle fatalities were because of drivers traveling against the posted direction in 49 crashes, with one to five fatalities per crash. Wrong‐way collisions were significantly more likely to occur during darkness (p < 0.0001) and involve legally intoxicated drivers (p < 0.0001). In 29/49 (60%) wrong‐way crashes, alcohol was a factor. Prevention strategies aimed at reducing the incidence of driving while intoxicated, as well as improved lighting and signage at ramps, could help reduce the occurrence of fatal wrong‐way collisions on interstates.     

Drunk Person Screening using Eye Thermal Signatures

Temperature distribution on the eyes of drunk persons is studied by means of thermal infrared images. The sclera and the iris are of the same temperature for the sober person, while for the intoxicated person, the sclera temperature increases. Consequently, only the thermal images from the drunk persons are necessary for intoxication screening. Forty‐one participants drank in a controlled alcohol consumption procedure. Their breath alcohol concentration was above the threshold of 0.2 mg/L of exhaled air, which corresponds to about 0.5 mg of alcohol per cubic centimeter of blood. Histogram modification algorithms were employed to prove that for 36 among the 41 intoxicated persons, the sclera becomes hotter. The Student t‐test verified with over 99% confidence the drunk discrimination capabilities of the procedure. The forensic science potential contribution of the method is that face infrared imagery is available to the authorities for supporting intoxication in case of criminal actions.     

Fatigue in multiple-car fatal accidents

In a re-examination of 334 fatal multiple car accidents, without any reasonable explanation besides possible intoxication, 205 drivers were found responsible for the accident. Twenty-one of these accidents happened between midnight and 0600 h and 11 of the drivers were found to be intoxicated with a blood/alcohol content (BAC) of more than 0.080%. The remaining 184 accidents took place during the rest of the day and 55 drivers were intoxicated. By comparing this apparent over-representation of intoxicated drivers in night-time accidents with that of a control group of no less than 15,923 drivers, it was possible to convert this over-representation into an under-representation. This decline in accidents while under influence seems to indicate another human accident factor specific to night-time traffic. It is concluded that fatigue is an overlooked but most obvious cause of otherwise unexplainable accidents in the night-time traffic.     

Injuries due to deliberate violence in areas of Denmark. IV. Alcohol intoxication in victims of violence. The Copenhagen Study Group

A material of 1316 victims of deliberate violence was collected prospectively during a one year period in three Danish emergency wards covering a provincial/rural area and two metropolitan areas. The frequency of alcohol intoxication was determined. Forty-one percent of the patients were intoxicated. The highest frequency was found in male victims, in the provincial/rural area, in restaurants or their vicinity, in the age group 35-49, during evenings and nights and in May. It is difficult to indicate specific preventive measures. However, a more restrictive attitude is suggested with regard to serving alcohol to intoxicated persons in restaurants.     

Rape-myth congruent beliefs in women resulting from exposure to violent pornography: effects of alcohol and sexual arousal

Previous research findings indicate that women suffer a variety of detrimental effects from exposure to violent pornography. This study used an experimental paradigm to examine the effects of a moderate alcohol dose and alcohol expectancies on women's acute reactions to a violent pornographic stimulus. A community sample of female social drinkers (N = 134) read an eroticized rape depiction after completing an alcohol administration protocol. As predicted, intoxicated participants were less likely to label the depicted events as rape than their sober counterparts. A path analytic model illustrated that participants' self-reported sexual arousal to the stimulus, as influenced by alcohol consumption and expectancies, resulted in increased rape myth congruent perceptions of the victim and decreased labeling of the incident as rape. Findings suggest that acute alcohol intoxication during violent pornography exposure may ultimately result in women developing more calloused attitudes toward rape and rape victims.     

Toluene-Impaired Drivers: Behavioral Observations, Impairment Assessment, and Toxicological Findings

Abstract:  Toluene is an aromatic hydrocarbon solvent frequently abused for its euphoric and intoxicating properties. This report describes a series of six cases involving drivers arrested for driving under the influence who subsequently tested positive for toluene. Case data including driving behavior, physiological signs and symptoms, evidence of impairment, and toxicology findings were reviewed. Blood toluene concentrations in the drivers ranged from 12 to 45 mg/L (median 23 mg/L, mean 25 mg/L, SD 12.1 mg/L). All drivers were determined to be intoxicated, and displayed symptoms including balance problems, confusion and disorientation, loss of coordination, and inability to follow instructions. They also displayed horizontal but not vertical nystagmus, elevated pulse and blood pressure, and lower body temperature. These findings are consistent with prior reports that subjects with blood toluene concentrations above 10 mg/L are invariably under the influence and their driving skills are affected.     

Medical driver selection and alcohol

Due to the rapid development of motorisation in the past few decades, the epidemic of traffic injuries has become a serious problem. Numerous studies indicate that the human factor, often in connection with alcohol consumption, plays a major role in traffic accidents. Studies also show that people addicted to alcohol often drive under the influence and are not deterred by the possibility of punishment, e.g. a revocation of their driving licence.Our study examined people who caused traffic accidents under the influence of alcohol in Slovenia, the consequences of their actions, police and judicial measures and medical selection.In the last decade, the share of people causing traffic accidents under the influence of alcohol in Slovenia has been on the rise. Higher blood alcohol levels are found in people causing fatal traffic accidents, most of them are cyclists, pedestrians and tractor drivers, aged between 25 and 34; the accidents are most common on village roads, on weekends. The discrepancy between numbers of intoxicated drivers with suspended driving licences (approximately 8500/year) and between numbers of successfully terminated judicial procedures is particularly worrisome. When these drivers get their licences back, the medical selection process is inadequate.Our results emphasise the problem of medical selection for reinstatement of penalized drivers. The inadequate approach currently in force allows too many dangerous drivers, most still addicted to alcohol, to return to traffic without medical selection. The only solution to this problem is an immediate change in legislation that would require rigorous medical selection for all reinstatements of drivers who drove under the influence of alcohol. This would decrease the numbers of intoxicated drivers in traffic and at least partly decrease the numbers of alcohol addicts in society.     

Extensive Necrotic Purpura in Levamisole‐Adulterated Cocaine Abuse – A Case Report

Levamisole, which is used as an adulterated compound of cocaine, is currently being seen year after year in cocaine intoxication. For a few cases in the last decade, necrotic purpura and neutropenia after levamisole/cocaine intoxication have been described in the medical community. Herein, we present an original case of levamisole intoxication of a 40‐year‐old woman who smoked heroin and cocaine few during a month. She rapidly presented an extensive necrotic purpura of the nose, cheeks and extremities (lower and upper), and immunologic reactions (positive anti‐MPO and anti‐HNE). Levamisole was detected on hairs with ultra‐high performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. The case reports also a probable cocaine supplier deceit, which bring pure drug for hospital investigation after the intoxication of his client. The intoxicated woman had survived with several skin and chronic pain complications. That case recalls the knowledge about levamisole with a short review of the forensic literature.     

A Review of Alcohol‐Impaired Driving: The Role of Blood Alcohol Concentration and Complexity of the Driving Task

The operation of a motor vehicle requires the integrity of sensory, motor, and intellectual faculties. Impairment of these faculties following the consumption of alcohol has been studied extensively through laboratory, closed‐course and on‐road driving, and epidemiological studies. The scientific literature was reviewed critically, with a focus on low‐to‐moderate blood alcohol concentrations (BAC ≤ 0.100%), to identify the most reliable determinants of alcohol‐impaired driving. Variables such as age, gender, driving skill, and tolerance were shown to have limited impact on impairment. It was concluded the most relevant variables are BAC and complexity of the driving task. The scientific literature provides a high degree of confidence to support the conclusion that a BAC of 0.050% impairs faculties required in the operation of a motor vehicle. Whether impairment is apparent depends upon the complexity of the driving task, which applies to both study design and actual driving.     

Police Responses to Sexual Assault Complaints: The Role of Perpetrator/Complainant Intoxication

This study explored the impact of victim and perpetrator alcohol consumption on police officers' evaluations of an alleged sexual assault and their reported likelihood of charging the perpetrator. Two hundred and twelve police officers were presented with a vignette depicting an acquaintance rape in which the beverage consumption (beer, cola) of both the victim and perpetrator was systematically varied. Results indicated that the officers' perceptions of the complainant's intoxication level, as well as the gender of the officer, influenced officers' evaluations of the alleged sexual assault. The more intoxicated the complainant was perceived to be, the more negatively she was viewed. Female police officers evaluated the victim more favorably than male officers. The only factors related to the officers' likelihood of charging the perpetrator, however, involved their assessment of the complainant's credibility and their perception of the likelihood that the perpetrator would be found guilty in a court of law.     

Production of intoxication states by actors--acoustic and temporal characteristics

This paper is the second of a series; the first has been published (J Forensic Sci, 1998;43:1153-62). The goal in the initial pair of experiments was to determine if speakers (actors) could effectively mimic the speech of intoxicated individuals and also volitionally reduce the degradation to their speech that resulted from severe inebriation. To this end, two highly controlled experiments involving 12 actor-speakers were carried out. It was found that, even when sober, nearly all of them were judged drunker (when pretending) than when they actually were severely intoxicated. In the second experiment, they tried to sound sober when highly intoxicated; here most were judged less inebriated than they were. The goal of this second paper is to identify some of the speech characteristics that allowed the subjects to achieve the cited illusions. The focus here is on four paralinguistic factors: fundamental frequency (F0), speaking rate, vocal intensity, and nonfluency level. For the simulation of intoxication study, it was found that F0 was raised along with increased intoxication but raised even more when this state was feigned. A slowing of speaking rate was associated with increasing intoxication, but this shift also was greater when the speaker simulated intoxication. The most striking contrast was found for the nonfluencies; they were doubled for actual intoxication, but quadrupled when intoxication was simulated. On the other hand, the shifts exhibited by the subjects when they attempted to sound sober were not as clear cut. Indeed, no systematic relationships were found here for either F0 or vocal intensity. Both speaking rate and the number of nonfluencies shifted appropriately, but these changes were not statistically significant. In sum, discernable suprasegmental relationships occurred for both studies (but especially the first); further, it is predicted that useful cues also will be found embedded in the segmentals (the sounds of speech).