Childhood and adolescent animal cruelty methods and their possible link to adult violent crimes

Few researchers have investigated the potentially predictive power of childhood and adolescent animal cruelty methods as they are associated with subsequent interpersonal violence in adulthood. Based on a sample of 261 inmates at medium- and maximum-security prisons in a southern state, the present study examines the relationship between several retrospectively reported animal cruelty methods (drowned, hit or kicked, shot, choked, burned, and had sex) and violent criminal acts committed against humans (assault, rape, and murder). More than half of the sample reported they had shot animals, and almost half had either kicked or hit them. About one in five said they had choked animals, and about one in seven said they had either drowned, burned, or had sex with them. Regression analyses revealed that drowning and having sex with an animal was predictive of later interpersonal violence as adults.     

Exploring the social and emotional context of childhood animal cruelty and its potential link to adult human violence

ABSTRACT

Those who commit acts of animal cruelty may do so differently based upon how they individually experience such acts. These experiences may impact the link that exists between childhood animal abuse and later interpersonal violence. Limited research exists that examines how social and emotional factors such as being upset after committing animal cruelty may impact the progression from early acts of animal cruelty to later acts of adult violence against humans. Based on responses from 180 prison inmates in a Southern state, the current study examined the effects of onset and frequency of animal cruelty, covertness of animal cruelty, the commission of animal cruelty alone or in a group, and being upset after committing animal cruelty. Inmates who committed recurrent acts of childhood animal cruelty were more likely to commit recurrent acts of adult interpersonal violence.     

The predictive value of childhood animal cruelty methods on later adult violence: examining demographic and situational correlates

The present study seeks to replicate Tallichet, Hensley, and Singer's research on childhood animal cruelty methods by using a sample of 180 male inmates surveyed at both medium- and maximum-security prisons in a southern state. The purpose of the current study was to first reexamine the relationship between demographic and situational factors and specific methods of childhood animal cruelty. Second, the correlation between an abuser's chosen method(s) of childhood animal cruelty on later recurrent acts of adult violent crimes was reinvestigated. Regression analyses revealed that respondents who engaged in frequent animal cruelty were more likely to have drowned, shot, kicked, or had sex with animals. Those who had grown up in urban areas and those who did not become upset after abusing animals were more likely to have kicked animals. Respondents who covered up their abuse were more likely to have had sex with animals. Sex with animals was the only method of childhood animal cruelty that predicted the later commission of adult violent crimes.     

Associations between different motivations for animal cruelty,methods of animal cruelty and facets of impulsivity

ABSTRACT

Associations between specific motivations for animal cruelty, particular methods of animal cruelty and different facets of impulsivity were explored among 130 undergraduate students. Participants completed an adapted version of the Boat Inventory on Animal-Related Experiences (BIARE) which asked participants to state whether they had intentionally harmed or killed an animal, the species of animal(s) involved, their motivations for harming or killing the animal(s) and the method(s) used. Participants also completed the Impulsive Behavior scale (UPPS-P) which assesses five facets of impulsivity. Over half of the sample (55%) reported committing at least one act of animal cruelty, and dogs were the most commonly abused species of animal. The most frequently reported motivations were Prejudice, Amusement, Control (of an animal), and Retaliation (against an animal), and the most frequently reported methods were Beating/Kicking, Squashing, Throwing an object at an animal, Shooting, Drowning and Burning. Significant associations were found between particular motivations and methods, as well as between particular methods of animal cruelty and facets of impulsivity. Findings have implications for theoretical models of animal cruelty perpetration as well as offender assessment and treatment.     

The effect of inmates' self-reported childhood and adolescent animal cruelty: motivations on the number of convictions for adult violent interpersonal crimes

Few researchers have investigated the potentially predictive power of motives for childhood and adolescent animal cruelty as it is associated with interpersonal violence in adulthood. Based on a sample of 261 inmates at medium- and maximum-security prisons in a southern state, the present study examines the relationship among several retrospectively reported motives (anger, fun, dislike, and imitation) for animal cruelty and violent crime convictions (assault, rape, and murder). Almost half reported abusing animals out of anger, whereas more than one third did so for fun. Dislike for the animal and imitation were less frequently occurring motives. Participants who abused animals at an earlier age and those who did so out of anger or for fun were more likely to repeat the offense. Regression analyses revealed that abusing an animal out of fun in their youth was the most statistically salient motive for predicting later interpersonal violence as adults.     

Exploring the possible link between childhood and adolescent bestiality and interpersonal violence

Bestiality is a serious although less frequently occurring form of animal cruelty that may be linked to subsequent aggression against humans. This investigation examines whether a perpetrator's race, childhood residence, education, commission of a personal crime, and the number of personal crimes committed affects acts of bestiality committed during childhood or adolescence among a sample of incarcerated males. The results show that respondents with less education and those who had been convicted of committing crimes against people on one or more occasions were more likely to have had sex with animals during their childhood or adolescence than other respondents in the sample. These findings lend some support to the sexually polymorphous theory that among these perpetrators sex and aggression have become mutually inclusive and that bestiality as a form of animal cruelty may be linked with interpersonal human violence.     

Examining the relationship between childhood animal cruelty motives and recurrent adult violent crimes toward humans

Few researchers have studied the predictive ability of childhood animal cruelty motives as they are associated with later recurrent violence toward humans. Based on a sample of 180 inmates at one medium- and one maximum-security prison in a Southern state, the present study examines the relationship among several retrospectively identified motives (fun, out of anger, hate for the animal, and imitation) for childhood animal cruelty and the later commission of violent crimes (murder, rape, assault, and robbery) against humans. Almost two thirds of the inmates reported engaging in childhood animal cruelty for fun, whereas almost one fourth reported being motivated either out of anger or imitation. Only one fifth of the respondents reported they had committed acts of animal cruelty because they hated the animal. Regression analyses revealed that recurrent animal cruelty was the only statistically significant variable in the model. Respondents who had committed recurrent childhood animal cruelty were more likely to have had committed recurrent adult violence toward humans. None of the motives for committing childhood animal cruelty had any effect on later violence against humans.     

From animal cruelty to serial murder: applying the graduation hypothesis

Although serial murder has been recorded for centuries, limited academic attention has been given to this important topic. Scholars have attempted to examine the causality and motivations behind the rare phenomenon of serial murder. However, scant research exists which delves into the childhood characteristics of serial murderers. Using social learning theory, some of these studies present supporting evidence for a link between childhood animal cruelty and adult aggression toward humans. Based on five case studies of serial murderers, we contribute to the existing literature by exploring the possible link between childhood cruelty toward animals and serial murder with the application of the graduation hypothesis.     

Parent and child reports of animal cruelty and their correlations with parent and child reports of child delinquency

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to determine whether child and parent reports of animal cruelty in children correlated with child- and parent-reported delinquency in these same children. A group of 3397 children (1778 boys and 1619 girls; age?=?9 years) from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing sample [FFCW: Reichman, Teitler, Garfinkel, & McLanahan (2001). Fragile families: Sample and design. Children & Youth Services Review, 23, 303–326] served as participants in this study. The prevalence of animal cruelty as reported by the child (4.7%) and parent (3.0%) were both low and the zero-order correlation between the two estimates was non-significant, suggesting that they were measuring different constructs. A two-equation multiple regression analysis was conducted, controlling for child gender, domestic violence within the home, mother hitting/spanking, and father hitting/spanking. Findings indicated that parent-reported animal cruelty correlated significantly with child-reported delinquency, controlling for child reports of animal cruelty and the four control variables. Child-reported animal cruelty, however, failed to correlate with parent-reported delinquency, controlling for parental reports of animal cruelty and the four control variables. These results suggest that parental reports of animal cruelty may be more useful as indicators of delinquent involvement than child reports. Possible reasons for these findings are discussed.     

Rural and urban differences in the commission of animal cruelty

Despite the recent surge in society's interest in human violence, relatively few studies have been conducted examining the closely related phenomenon of animal cruelty. Although several researchers have begun to identify some of the correlates of animal cruelty, few have attempted to understand how differences in the backgrounds of rural and urban residents have led to their abuse of animals. Using survey data from 261 inmates, the authors investigate how demographic, familial differences and species type have contributed to the frequency of acts of animal cruelty. In general, early exposure to animal abuse is a strong predictor of the subsequent behavior. However, rural inmates learned to be cruel by watching family members exclusively, whereas urban inmates learned from family members and friends. Moreover, urban inmates chose dogs, cats, and wild animals as their target animals; however, rural inmates chose only cats.     

Exposure to interpersonal violence as a predictor of PTSD symptomatology in domestic violence survivors

This study examines the interrelationships between childhood abuse, exposure to maternal domestic violence, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology in a multiethnic sample of 111 adult female residents of a domestic violence (DV) shelter. Participants completed structured interviews about the DV and their prior violence exposure, as well as the Impact of Event Scale-Revised. As hypothesized, there was high co-occurrence between exposure to maternal DV and childhood physical and sexual abuse, and the frequency of lifetime violence exposure predicted PTSD symptomatology. A series of multiple regressions indicated a more complex pattern of relationships, in which specific forms of prior violence exposure predicted different PTSD symptom dimensions. A history of witnessing maternal DV predicted intrusion symptoms, and a history of childhood sexual abuse predicted hyperarousal symptoms. Ethnicity was not related to levels of violence exposure or to PTSD symptoms. Clinical implications of the findings are discussed.     

Culture and interpersonal violence research: paradigm shift to create a full continuum of domestic violence services

This article addresses the importance of culture within the context of domestic violence. It takes the position that to work more effectively with diverse cultural groups, the development of a full continuum of services that includes eliminating the violence and keeping families together is required. The authors believe that intervention models developed in the fields of HIV/AIDS may provide important examples for future work.     

Advances in the assessment and prediction of interpersonal violence

This article underscores the weakness of clinical judgment as a mechanism for prediction with examples from other areas in the psychological literature. Clinical judgment has as its Achilles'heel the reliance on a person to incorporate multiple pieces of information while overcoming human judgment errors--a feat insurmountable thus far. The actuarial approach to risk assessment has overcome many of the weaknesses of clinical judgment and has been shown to be a much superior method. Nonetheless, the static/historical nature of the risk factors associated with most actuarial approaches is limiting. Advances in risk prediction will be found in part in the development of dynamic actuarial instruments that will measure both static/historical and changeable risk factors. The dynamic risk factors can be reevaluated on an ongoing basis, and it is proposed that the level of change in dynamic factors necessary to represent a significant change in overall risk will be an interactive function with static risk factors.     

The ecological context of interpersonal violence: from culture to collective efficacy

This brief essay outlines the progression over the last 20 years of ecological theories of interpersonal violence. The period between the present and the early 1980s began with a revival of cultural explanations of violence that paralleled the introduction of the neo-conservative social science and then witnessed a rediscovery of deficits based structural explanations of interpersonal violence under the broad rubric of social disorganization theory. The essay concludes with a more optimistic appraisal of recent refinements of social disorganization theory that consider the mediating effects of collective efficacy on urban crime and interpersonal violence.     

Children’s attitudes towards animal cruelty: Exploration of predictors and socio-demographic variations

ABSTRACT

Assessing the risk for animal cruelty is imperative, yet understudied and problematic due to the sensitivity of the topic. Early prevention is critical, yet very little research examines cruelty when it first appears in childhood. The aim of this study was to explore children’s attitudes towards types of animal cruelty, to investigate potential demographic differences, and to examine potential associations between acceptance of cruelty and cognitive and affective factors that place children ‘at-risk’ for cruelty perpetration. Questionnaire data was collected from 1127 children in schools. The results indicate that cruelty attitudes are predicted by some demographic variables such as urban living, being male, younger age and not having pets, but depend on the type of animal cruelty. Acceptance of cruelty predicted low compassion and low reported humane behaviour towards animals. Acceptance of cruelty was predicted by negative attitudes towards animals, lower beliefs in animal minds and low attachment to pets, signifying the importance of targeting such variables in future prevention programmes. This study is an original contribution to research into childhood animal cruelty in the general population, with implications for designing and implementing early prevention programmes that tackle problematic attitudes to cruelty.     

Non-fatal injuries due to interpersonal violence in Johannesburg-Soweto: incidence, determinants and consequences.

A prospective, hospital based sampling procedure conducted between June 8th, 1989 and August 24th, 1990 identified 1592 victims of interpersonal violence in six state and five private hospitals serving the Johannesburg magisterial district (which includes Soweto). For the 1282 victims resident in the area, this corresponded to crude annualised incidence rates per 100,000 population of 3821 for coloureds, 1527 for blacks, 467 for whites, 433 for asians and 1380 for all residents. Males, most of whom were aged 20-24 years, constituted 83.9% of all victims and were most often attacked on the streets. The majority of females were attacked at home by a spouse or lover, and most incidents occurred between dusk and midnight on weekends. Sharp violence was the most frequent type, involving 52.2% of the male and 51.4% of the female victims. Analysis by racial classification of the overall findings for mechanism of injury and relationship to aggressor showed dramatic differences. Limitations of the findings are discussed. After comparison with similar data for two United States cities and Copenhagen, Denmark, it is hypothesised that the racial differences in the present findings reflect the interplay of universal structural determinants and a specific colonial factor rooted in the sociology and psychology of oppression. Some implications of these findings and hypothesised determinants for violence prevention initiatives are mentioned.     

Thoughts on interpersonal violence and lessons learned: fact or fiction

Although interpersonal violence is evident in all strata of society, every geographical area in the country, and across each gender, it takes courage to acknowledge our passivity about the phenomena, particularly when people of color are involved. Thus, the mass incarcerations of African American men and women and data citing the overrepresentation of African American children not being adequately served in the child welfare system are highlighted to address the three questions posed to authors: What have we learned about violence and trauma over two decades? What should be learned over the next 10 years about violence and trauma? What methodologies exist that show promise of affecting a better understanding of violence and trauma?     

Nature-nurture interplay: genetically informative designs contribute to understanding the effects of trauma and interpersonal violence

The past two decades have seen an explosion in research in the fields of violence and trauma and behavior genetics. These two fields came into direct conflict when Lisabeth Fisher DiLalla and Irving I. Gottesman outlined a fundamental conceptual limitation of trauma and violence research: that rather than being causal, the well-documented relationship between exposure to trauma or violence and later negative outcomes could be explained by gene-environment correlation. In the past decade, researchers have addressed this limitation by studying the effects of trauma and violence using genetically informative designs. This report briefly discusses the gains made from this research approach and the promising future for genetically informative trauma and violence research.     

Examining the links between animal abuse and human violence

Empirical research has increasingly found evidence for the coexistence of animal abuse and various forms of interpersonal violence. Some researchers have even argued for a specific version of this relationship, namely, that individuals tend to move from violence toward animals, particularly in childhood, to subsequent violence toward humans. Others have suggested that the evidence for this graduation or progression hypothesis is weak and inconsistent, and that an approach to animal abuse that focuses on the link is misguided. This article begins by reviewing the research on the connections between animal abuse and interhuman violence. Then it critically assesses the evidence for and against the link, and discusses the issues and challenges facing future research in this area.