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1.
The spectacular business scandals in recent years have led both the legislative and business companies to rethink and redesign
their strategies. This article analyzes the worldwide impact of reforms in economic crime legislation emanating from the USA.
Empirical data are reported showing that the US regulations are generating a spillover effect spreading beyond its sphere
of operation. It is particularly notable that international stock-exchange-listed companies are orienting themselves increasingly
toward the legal standards of the USA.
Translated from the German by Jonathan Harrow, Bielefeld.
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2.
Nanotechnology has attracted significant research, funding, and policy activity in recent years in the US and many other countries.
Of particular interest are the locational characteristics of this emerging technology. This study examines the emergence of
nanotechnology in the US South to explore questions of regional standing and spatial trajectory, using an exploratory multi-indicator
approach. Our research employs an array of 10 indicators of knowledge generation, human capital, R&D funding, and patenting,
to uncover developments, clusters, and linkages in nanotechnology emergence. Results indicate that although there is nanotechnology
activity in every state in the US South, this activity agglomerates in a few locations. One emerging nanodistrict (North Carolina’s
Research Triangle) has prior strengths in high technology research and commercialization, especially based on biotechnology;
but other districts (e.g., Oak Ridge Tennessee and Atlanta, Georgia) that have strengths in certain aspects of the nanotechnology
research ecosystem have weaknesses in commercialization. The study illustrates how multi-indicator approaches can be developed
from existing databases, using customized search techniques, and how the insights from multi-indicator measurement can be
used to provide insights for research and innovation policy.
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3.
Nanoscience and nanotechnology are science fields which are growing extremely dynamically. Germany occupies the top position
in Europe and is only second to the US worldwide, which can be attributed to growing research promotion by the state. Based
on a general conceptual framework on the role of different types of standards in the research process and technology life
cycle, we argue that the market success of nanotechnology applications depends very much on the development of corresponding
standards, which clarify not only terminology, measurement and testing methods, but also regulate safety and health aspects
and specify interfaces. Other countries, European and international standardisation organisations have launched first initiatives
rather early. However, Germany was not able to translate its excellent starting position in nanotechnology research into a
leading position in standardisation initiatives, which pave the way for future commercialisation of nanotechnology and also
the basis for the next generation of research activities. Based on a survey among stakeholders of German nanotechnology research,
we are able not only to provide a first empirical validation of our conceptual model on the role of standards in the research
process, but also to define the major problems at the interface between research and standardisation, and finally, to recommend
possible options for their solution.
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4.
Nanotechnology has been proposed as the next general purpose technology and engine for growth for the 21th century. Increasing
public R&D investments are foremost reflected in the growth of scientific publications, while nanotechnology still is in an
uncertain phase of development with various directions of commercialization pending. This paper focuses on the challenges,
modes and outcomes of nanotechnology as an emerging science-based field in Finland. The paper contributes by interrogating
how challenges and modes of nanotechnology transfer differ across universities and companies and determine outcomes broadly
defined. It uses survey data covering university and company researchers in the Finnish nanotechnology community. The results
show significant differences in the perceptions of researchers across these organisations, and highlight specific challenges
and modes as determinants of outcomes. The specificities of nanotechnology are also assessed.
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5.
This article provides the background to an international project on use of force by the police that was carried out in seven
countries. Force is often considered to be the defining characteristic of policing and much research has been conducted on
the determinants, prevalence and control of the use of force, particularly in the United States. However, little work has
looked at police officers’ own views on the use of force, in particular the way in which they justify it. Using a hypothetical
encounter developed for this project, researchers in each country conducted focus groups with police officers in which they
were encouraged to talk about the use of force. The results show interesting similarities and differences across countries
and demonstrate the value of using this kind of research focus and methodology.
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6.
This paper presents the theoretical framework and empirical analysis of the effect of stronger Intellectual Property Rights
(IPRs) on technology transfer from parent firm to its subsidiaries in foreign countries. The results of empirical testing,
based on the firm-level panel data of Japanese MNCs’ foreign subsidiaries, show that the stronger protection of IPRs has a
positive effect on the promotion of intra-firm technology transfer after controlling for market specific factors in the host
countries as well as parent-subsidiary firm specific factors. They are consistent with our theoretical prediction and the
results of the previous studies based on US firm-level data.
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7.
This article evaluates whether the changing presence of foreign firms in India has had an impact on the performance of India’s
industrial sector by impacting on the utilization of intangible capabilities within firms. Foreign firms bring in technological
skills and capabilities and these are transferred by a spillover process to all of Indian industry. The results show a strong
relationship between the growing presence of foreign firms in India and measures capturing the utilization of varieties of
competencies in Indian industry. Thus, the notion that foreign firms’ capabilities can spillover to other sectors of industry
finds support in the data.
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8.
This paper describes innovation-related data available from international economic surveys conducted by the U.S. Bureau of
Economic Analysis. These data are collected in conjunction with the international transactions accounts of the United States
and in surveys of the operations of multinational companies (MNCs). The paper focuses on five innovation-related series: receipts
and payments of royalties and license fees; exports and imports of research, development, and testing services; sales of services
by foreign affiliates classified in the research and development services industry; MNC R&D spending; and MNC R&D employment.
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9.
Attention has increasingly shifted towards the long-run perspective on technological innovation, which suggests that progress
comes in waves, each one originating with a major breakthrough or general purpose technology (GPT). This paper seeks to assess
whether nanotechnology is likely to be (or become) a GPT, a characteristic that other researchers have sometimes assumed though
not necessarily documented. Based on a survey of existing literature, this paper will explore the extent to which nanotechnology
addresses three primary characteristics of a GPT: pervasiveness, innovation spawning, and scope for improvement. The paper
draws on patent and patent citation databases to highlight the types of quantitative and qualitative information that would
be necessary, and in some instances is still lacking, to characterize fully the nature of nanotechnology.
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10.
This paper compares the innovative performance of foreign-owned and domestically owned enterprises in five European countries.
We look at innovation inputs, outputs, and examine how strong foreign-owned enterprises are embedded in the innovations systems
of their host countries. We find that foreign ownership is associated with similar levels of innovation input, but higher
levels of innovation output and higher labour productivity compared to domestic ownership. In four of the five countries,
affiliates of foreign multinationals show a similar or even a higher propensity to co-operate with domestic partners than
domestically owned enterprises.
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11.
This paper estimates the process of diffusion and decay of knowledge from university, public laboratories and corporate patents
in six countries and tests the differences across countries and across technological fields using data from the European Patent
Office. It finds that university and public research patents are more cited relatively to companies’ patents. However these
results are mainly driven by the Chemical, Drugs & Medical, and Mechanical fields and US universities. In Europe and Japan,
where the great majority of patents from public research come from national agencies, there is no evidence of a superior fertility
of university and public laboratory patents vis à vis corporate patents. The distribution of the citation lags shows that
knowledge embedded in university and public research patents tends to diffuse more rapidly relative to corporate ones in particular
in the US, Germany, France and Japan.
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12.
Rapid growth in internationalization of corporate R&D has spurred considerable interest since the 1990s. Foreign R&D is still
mainly driven by the expansion of international production, but technology sourcing has become an increasingly important driver
of dispersion. Actually, differences across sectors and companies tend to obscure the mix of motivations behind the development
of global innovation networks. This paper distinguishes the various drivers of the international dispersion of corporate R&D
in order to elaborate a typology of foreign R&D units, including in emerging countries. This typology is used to discuss the
emergence of differentiated global innovation networks and the location choices by type of R&D unit. It is applied to foreign
R&D projects in Europe in high and low cost countries between 2002 and 2005. It is then used to discuss the weakening attractiveness
of the European Union for R&D activities and the relevant policies that countries can design to attract different types of
units.
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13.
Incarceration rates in many countries (the US and Australia among them) have risen spectacularly over the last twenty years
and are only partially explicable by increases in crime rates. Moreover, in some countries where crime rates have shown a
comparable time-path, incarceration rates have not shown the same spectacular increase. The aim of this paper is to explore
the politics of punishment. The claim is that the US and Australian experiences are best understood in terms of political
considerations; and that this fact lends some support to the “expressive” as distinct from the “interest” approach to electoral
behaviour.
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14.
Whereas foreign investment innovation (FII) has become increasingly common, after decades of debate it is still unclear whether
it is desirable for the home country or for the company’s host country. This paper reviews articles from three complementary
economic and business traditions which investigate this phenomenon and propose policies based on facts: the economics of technological
change tradition, the international business (IB) tradition, and the line of research on international technology transfers.
Articles in line with these strands of theory complement each other because they approach different aspects of complex events
while explaining FII and its effects on host and home countries. Host countries obtain maximum benefits from FII when affiliates
import foreign technology, purchase their inputs in the host country and enjoy product and technological autonomy vis-à-vis
the parent. Different types of MNEs, affiliates and foreign R&D units have different potentials for transferring technology
to host countries and provide different scope for policies. The authors recommend that governments encourage direct vertical
linkages between MNEs and domestic suppliers who could reap the benefits from foreign knowledge. However, some important success
factors remain exogenous to governments. As for indigenous MNEs, it is a matter of controversy whether governments should
always stimulate them to conduct research in foreign locations or, alternatively, incentive them to stay at home. The need
for additional evidence is still considerable in many respects.
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15.
This article focuses on a research project conducted in six jurisdictions: England, The Netherlands, Germany, Australia, Venezuela,
and Brazil. These societies are very different ethnically, socially, politically, economically, historically and have wildly
different levels of crime. Their policing arrangements also differ significantly: how they are organised; how their officers
are equipped and trained; what routine operating procedures they employ; whether they are armed; and much else besides. Most
relevant for this research, they represent policing systems with wildly different levels of police shootings, Police in the
two Latin American countries represented here have a justified reputation for the frequency with which they shoot people,
whereas at the other extreme the police in England do not routinely carry firearms and rarely shoot anyone. To probe whether
these differences are reflected in the way that officers talk about the use of force, police officers in these different jurisdictions
were invited to discuss in focus groups a scenario in which police are thwarted in their attempt to arrest two youths (one
of whom is a known local criminal) by the youths driving off with the police in pursuit, and concludes with the youths crashing
their car and escaping in apparent possession of a gun, It might be expected that focus groups would prove starkly different,
and indeed they were, but not in the way that might be expected. There was little difference in affirmation of normative and
legal standards regarding the use of force. It was in how officers in different jurisdictions envisaged the circumstances
in which the scenario took place that led Latin American officers to anticipate that they would shoot the suspects, whereas
officers in the other jurisdictions had little expectation that they would open fire in the conditions as they imagined them
to be.
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16.
We ask whether informal interactions between university and industry scientists result in collaborative research. Using data
from a national survey of tenured and tenure-track scientists and engineers in U.S. research extensive universities, we demonstrate
that university scientists’ informal interactions with private sector companies increase both the likelihood and intensity
of collaborative research with industry.
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17.
After decades of neglect, a growing number of scholars have turned their attention to issues of crime and criminal justice
in the rural context. Despite this improvement, rural crime research is underdeveloped theoretically, and is little informed
by critical criminological perspectives. In this article, we introduce the broad tenets of a multi-level theory that links
social and economic change to the reinforcement of rural patriarchy and male peer support, and in turn, how they are linked
to separation/divorce sexual assault. We begin by addressing a series of misconceptions about what is rural, rural homogeneity
and commonly held presumptions about the relationship of rurality, collective efficacy (and related concepts) and crime. We
conclude by recommending more focused research, both qualitative and quantitative, to uncover specific link between the rural
transformation and violence against women.
This paper was presented at the 2006 annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Los Angeles, California. Some
of the research reported here was supported by National Institute of Justice Grant 2002-WG-BX-0004 and financial assistance
provided by the College of Arts and Sciences and the Office of the Vice President for Research at Ohio University. Arguments
and findings included in this article are those of the authors and do not represent the official position of the US Department
of Justice or Ohio University. Please send all correspondence to Walter S. DeKeseredy, e-mail: walter.dekeseredy@uoit.ca.
All of the names of the women who participated in DeKeseredy and colleagues’ rural Ohio study and who are quoted have been
changed to maintain confidentiality.
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18.
Following reforms between 1998 and 2004, Japan’s technology transfer system closely resembles the U.S. Bayh-Dole system. Numbers
of TLO patents and licenses and numbers of startups are respectable compared to U.S. numbers shortly after enactment of Bayh-Dole.
However, capabilities of TLOs vary, average royalties are low, and business prospects for most startups seem limited. In contrast,
joint research with companies is increasing rapidly. Most joint research inventions are jointly owned giving the companies
an automatic de facto, non-transferable, royalty-free and license. Data from one university show a large proportion of engineering
and materials/chemistry inventions are attributed to joint research with large companies, thus limiting opportunities for
startup formation and licensing to other small companies. (In biomedicine, pre-emption of discoveries by joint research is
less.) Pre-emption of university discoveries (often publicly funded) under joint research agreements recreates the pre-reform
system, where corporate donations also enabled pre-emption of discoveries. Like the old system, the new system is advantageous
to established companies. Strengthening the formal system (including programs to assist startups) may redress this balance
and give Japan the benefits of both types of technology transfer systems.
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19.
In recent years, development agencies (DAs) have focused their activities on consulting projects rather than on financing
turnkey projects when assisting emerging markets. The main reason is that the implementation of consulting projects is likely
to be connected with an intensive knowledge transfer from developed to emerging markets. Training of local employees and cooperation
with local firms are necessary elements to make the transfer effective. The empirical statistics shows training and cooperation
to be more frequent in consulting projects financed by DAs as compared to commercial projects. According to theory and experience,
training should be included in projects in the least developed host countries, whereas local cooperation should be more frequent,
the higher is the development level of the host country. However, DAs do not follow these rules of thumb in a convincing way.
A policy implication of the paper is therefore that DAs should better organize and plan the contents of their consulting projects.
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20.
The rapid economic growth in China over recent decades has been accompanied by higher levels of crime, but there have been
few studies of the Chinese experience of criminal victimization. A recent victimization survey of a representative sample
of households in Tianjin represents a major effort to fill this gap in the literature. The present paper reviews the research
based on the Tianjin survey along with other studies of crime and criminal victimization in China that have been published
since 1990. We summarize the major findings, discuss the theoretical perspectives and methodological strategies that have
been applied, identify the limitations of the research to date, and offer suggestions for future research.
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