我国民事诉讼领域有关鉴定的问题与对策

“鉴定乱”的形成原因之一在于我国民事诉讼鉴定制度采用辅助法官判断能力和充实当事人诉讼攻击防御方法的双重目的之设计,其在现行司法鉴定体制下是一种合理性存在.具有增强当事人对抗性辩论功能的“鉴定乱”不仅没有对我国民事审判制度目标的实现造成实质性危害,反而有可能促进我国民事审判制度目标的实现.当下,我国民事诉讼鉴定制度存在的主要问题是缺乏对当事人辩论权进行有效性保护,以及因民事审判公信力不足而导致当事人对鉴定意见为认定事实基础的判决缺乏信赖.固然造成鉴定制度产生上述问题还有鉴定机构水平参差不齐、鉴定设备限制、鉴定技术标准不统一,鉴定人能力差异等原因,但建立平等、透明、公正的凝聚共识型民事诉讼鉴定制度更是当下亟需研究的重要课题,这也是研究的核心内容.     

The effects of statutory change on the civil commitment of the mentally ill

Several states have revised their civil commitment statutes in recent years. A majority of the recent revisions reflect judicial directives to provide more explicit commitment criteria, but in some instances, criteria have been broadened in reaction to the difficulty of getting some individuals hospitalized under strict criteria. Such statutory changes have impacted considerably on both process and outcome of the civil commitment system. Adoption of explicit commitment criteria has resulted most visibly in substantial reduction of hospital admissions and census. The present study examines the impact of explicit changes in commitment criteria in Florida following the 1982 enactment of amendments to the Baker Act. A total of 80 commitment hearings are reviewed before and after the law took effect to determine procedural effects of the law on degree of defense counsel advocacy, client dispositions, and on the court's adherence to more explicit criteria. State hospital admissions, discharge, and census information is examined in order to identify the larger impact of 1982 statutory changes on the commitment system. Evidence from hearings and state data suggests that changes in the Florida law impacted significantly on both process and outcome of the civil commitment system. Clients referred to commitment hearings are more dangerous, and may represent a new hard-core group remaining after more explicit eligibility criteria are applied by local intake, and emergency detention facilities. State hospital admissions and census in Florida declined significantly following enactment of the 1982 law, consistent with findings from other states enacting similar statutory reforms. Implications for deinstitutionalization policy and administration are discussed.     

The structure of civil commitment

The contents and provisions of civil commitment codes are shaped by a number of influences. This article examines those influences and categorizes them as either falling within the civil commitment system itself or as being external to that system. From an analysis of those internal and external influences, it is concluded that the structure of civil commitment is very much dependent upon the environment in which such laws operate and upon the intricate and integral relationship between civil commitment and other important forms of mental health legislation (incompetence to stand trial, the insanity defense, etc.).     

Employing the Mental Health System to Control Sex Offenders After Penal Incarceration*

In the 1930s, several states provided civil commitment in mental institutions for certain sex offenders. Civil commitment of these sex offenders abated after most states repealed their statutes in the 1960s. In the 1980s, however, these statutes returned, as outraged citizens deplored the offenses of repeated sex offenders. The author of this essay examines civil commitment statutes for sex offenders in Washington and Minnesota, two of the leading states in this area, as well as recent rulings from each state's Supreme Court upholding the constitutionality of these statutes. Particularly, the author focuses on the psychiatric or mental health discussions by the justices in the majority in both state rulings. Furthermore, the author criticizes the legislatively defined mental abnormality statutes that sanction these commitments, proposes use of the ordinary civil commitment statutes for individuals who are seriously mentally ill, and concludes that sex offenders who do not meet the criteria for traditional civil commitment should be handled by the criminal justice system.     

公务员忠诚义务的若干问题研究——对《公务员法》第12条的解读

《中华人民共和国公务员法》第12条规定了公务员的忠诚义务。公务员忠诚义务兼具伦理道德和法律的双重属性,是一种制度性的忠诚,约束公务员的一切与职务相关的行为。公务员违反忠诚于宪法和法律的义务,应予以追究道义、行政和法律上的责任。     

A methodology for predicting the effects of changes in civil commitment decision making

We review a three-step civil commitment model and formulas for calculating the probability of release from commitment and the relative importance of the three steps in determining the outcome. New formulas are developed which enable predictions to be made about the effects of changes on the outcome of the three steps on the release probability. With the use of data from Oregon's civil commitment process, we present an example of the application of the methodology and conclude with a discussion of its major administrative and research implications.     

Methodology for the analysis of civil commitment detention times and costs

The authors expand their methodology for quantifying and comparing civil commitment processes by developing new formulas for the determination of the average commitment detention time and cost. They also examine the effects of specific changes in commitment procedures on the average detention time and cost. Using data from Oregon's civil commitment process, the authors present several examples of the practical application of their methodology and conclude with a discussion of its major administrative and research implications.     

Civil commitment and the criminal insanity plea in Israeli law

In Israeli jurisprudence there is a substantial difference towards mentally ill patients between the civil and penal law systems that goes well beyond differences required by their separate objectives. Mentally ill people dangerous to others due to their illness belong in the hospital, not in the community or in jail. The data gathered especially for this paper make it hard to escape the conclusion that contemporary practice in Israel does not accord with this objective. On the civil front, inaccuracy in predicting who is dangerous may lead to involuntary commitment of people who are not dangerous. On the criminal side, too few people are sent to the hospital in Israel and correspondingly too many to jail. Comparison with US data and practice shows that on the civil side prediction has been improved by using actuarial methods, while on the penal side more up to date definitions of mental illness have been adopted. Whatever the appropriate solution for Israel, surely the first requirement is recognition of the problem.     

现今中国民法典编纂借鉴德国民法典的几点思考

当代中国,包括大陆、台湾和澳门的法制实际都是在借鉴和继受大陆法系法制,特别是德国法制的基础上建立的。无论从法律传统还是从现实情况看,我国目前正在进行的民事立法及将来的法典编纂没有特别的理由偏离这一既定取向。当然,这并不排除在具体规则和制度上借鉴吸收英美法系法制内容,以补充和完善整体法制。在此过程中,有两个基本而重要的制度及其理论直接涉及德国法制,即：民商分立和物权抽象原则。根据历史和现实的考察以及对民商法特征的分析,我国未来的民法典编纂仍应采取民商分立的模式,而且这实际已是一种现实。至于在德国国内始终存在很大争议的物权行为理论或抽象原则,我们则不应完全照搬,而要从中寻取启发,在此基础上根据我国的实际情况和我们自己的思路,建立一种较容易理解、较接近实际生活和便于操作的物权理论及其相应制度。     

法律语境下的合作社

按照国际劳工组织《合作社立法指南》的观点,"合作社通过其社员的努力,日益被作为一种实现公司认为无利可图及政府不能或不愿意实现的目标的一种手段"。合作社的上述价值使得各学科都关注对合作社的研究,法学也不例外。无论在经济学领域,还是在社会学领域,合作社都有其特定的含义。本文着重从法律主体的角度研究合作社,这也是合作社在法律语境下应有的意义,合作社属于民商事法律主体体系的一部分,对其准确定位有助于促进合作社立法的科学性和体系性。在此基础上,对合作社法律体系存在的问题及目前我国唯一的有关合作社的立法——《农民专业合作社法》进行评析,并提出完善我国合作社法律制度的建议。     

A population at risk: civil commitment of substance abusers after Kansas v. Hendricks

In its 1997 decision, Kansas v. Hendricks, the U.S. Supreme Court radically changed the face of civil commitment. In finding the Kansas Sexually Violent Predators Act constitutional, the Court liberalized the first constitutional requirement for involuntary commitment from "mental illness" to a much broader "mental abnormality" standard, without correspondingly restricting the second requirement of dangerousness. The decision essentially authorizes states to civilly commit a broad range of individuals without sufficient due process protections. This Comment explores the possibilities for expansion of civil commitment in the wake of Hendricks. It argues that the holding was unjustifiably broad, focusing in particular on the potential danger facing substance abusers. In conclusion, it offers several suggestions for mitigating the potential misuse of this dangerous precedent.     

经理制度比较综议——以大陆法系为主要考察视角

在大陆法系,经理人既可作为营业主委任经营之人,也可根据法律或章程规定,作为企业法人之机关（包括代表机关）。经理权的本质是商事代理权,有关学说将经理权分解成对内管理与对外代理两种权能并不科学。大陆法系经理权依委任并公示取得,未经委任但具有经理外观者可赋予其表见经理地位。经理权的消灭也有特殊的要求。经理权可单独行使,也可共同行使,共同经理权并非对经理权范围的限制。经理人的主要义务是竞业禁止和忠实义务,违反竞业禁止的后果是公司或营业主享有归入权或介入权。根据法人理论的不同,经理和法人机关或存在交集或完全不同。大陆法系的商业辅助包括经理人,无论冠以何种称谓,其核心权限均为商事代理权,其区别仅在于根据各自与商人的关系或所处职位不同而享有不同权限。代理商属广义之商业辅助人,是企业或商人的外部代理人。     

U.S. psychiatrists' beliefs and wants about involuntary civil commitment grounds

This article presents results of a national U.S. survey of psychiatrists' views about legal grounds for involuntary civil commitment. Data from 739 Respondents revealed strong support for "danger to self," "danger to others," and "grave disability" as grounds, but weak support for "illness relapse." Psychiatrists did not support commitment for addiction to drugs or alcohol nor for sexual predators. Logit regression revealed few significant associations between Respondents' choice of grounds and other variables, such as race, employment setting, experience with commitment, and political climate of the state. Respondents' support for the various commitment grounds was found to be most significantly associated with what Respondents believed the law to be in their state; Respondents tended to support the grounds they believed to be the law. The reasons for the strong association between Respondents' beliefs and wants concerning commitment grounds is explored. It is suggested that Respondents have adopted their states' commitment grounds as their preferences through a process of internalization of norms. Implications of this hypothesis are discussed.     

Outpatient civil commitment in Texas for management and treatment of sexually violent predators: a preliminary report

Texas established in 1999 outpatient civil commitment for sexually violent predators discharged from prison with or without parole. These individuals suffer from a behavioral abnormality, have been convicted of two or more sexually violent crimes and are deemed likely to reoffend. Civilly committed individuals are managed by a team composed of case manager (supervision), treatment provider, public safety officer (global positioning satellite monitoring), and other professionals. Treatment consists of individual and group therapy using a standard workbook. Out of 21 committed individuals, 7 are in the treatment, 1 died, 10 are in custody after breaking conditions of commitment that constitute a felony, and 3 await release from prison. Cost of outpatient civil commitment is less than $20,000/person/year compared with more than $100,000 for inpatient commitment in other states. Texas has found outpatient civil commitment to be an effective and relatively low-cost way to protect the public and treat the offender.     

The influence of the right to refuse treatment on precommitment patients

The unplanned extension of the right to refuse treatment to the precommitment period is described in this paper. This extension of the right to refuse treatment has important public policy implications for the civil commitment process. These implications, as well as the pros and cons of the extension of the right to refuse treatment, are discussed.     

Sexually violent predator laws and the liberal state: an ominous threat to individual liberty

No other country has taken the idea of the liberal state - a government that relies on the rule of law to limit state power and maximize individual liberty - as seriously as the United States. But now many states are manipulating the government's civil commitment authority to indefinitely confine sex offenders who have served their criminal sentences and are entitled to their freedom in the community. This new system of preventive detention masquerading as civil commitment poses an ominous threat to individual liberty and to the continued vitality of the liberal state.     

Investigators' and judges' opinions about civil commitment

As part of our work with the Oregon Task Force on Civil Commitment, we surveyed the judges and commitment investigators involved in the state's involuntary treatment program. In Oregon the investigators recommend whether or not a commitment hearing should be held. These mental health professionals indicated that current confidentiality laws restrict their access to important information. The investigators also expressed concern about the lack of resources with which to divert clients out of the commitment system. Judges too felt that relaxing the rules of evidence would improve the quality of commitment hearings. Regarding changes in the system, investigators and judges indicated that outpatient treatment (including compliance with medications) should be required of committed patients. These professionals noted that involuntary outpatient treatment could only be enforced if the system included a mechanism for hospitalizing patients who were noncompliant. Although the investigators believed commitment criteria should be broadened so that their clients could receive treatment before becoming dangerous, judges did not generally endorse this view. We discuss the implications of these findings for new civil commitment legislation.     

Forensic mental health law reform in Japan: from criminal warehousing to broad-spectrum specialist services?

Since the 1980s Japan has undergone a number of mental health law reforms culminating in the 2005 forensic law. This added to its enactments on involuntary commitment, long-term aged care and substitute decision making, bringing Japan into focus as an industrialized state now possessed of a full package of civil and forensic provisions. This article seeks to demonstrate that the new forensic law cannot achieve its own stated goals without seeking to put into place financial and administrative supports aimed to integrate the myriad of patient populations that will be inevitably affected by the new forensic system. In order to avoid the widespread syndrome that has already been experienced internationally of warehousing mentally ill offenders in jails, it is critical that the Japanese government develop effective and culturally sensitive techniques for dealing with low risk populations through a diversionary process. Furthermore, although the legislation addresses serious crimes, it is imperative that policies be put into place to avoid directing young offenders, violent patients from the general hospital system, the developmentally handicapped, already convicted persons found in hospital settings and problematic cases in the correctional system, to the new forensic units established by the legislation. It is only though contemplating unintended outcomes of the legislation that the Japanese government will be able to avoid the ongoing stigmatization and prolonged institutionalization of mentally ill populations. Despite apparent cultural differences internationally vetted human rights requirements must be properly protected, not only in the forensic context, but throughout the mental health system at large. The coordination of services and the development of specialty training are necessary conditions for the realization of improved and humane conditions for mentally ill persons in Japan.     

Outpatient civil commitment: a dangerous charade or a component of a comprehensive institution of civil commitment?

This article examines three criticisms frequently directed toward preventive commitment as one form of outpatient commitment. These criticisms contend that preventive commitment (a) abandons the dangerousness criteria for civil commitmnet, (b) promotes unwarranted inpatient commitment of those who do not meet civil commitment criteria, and (c) undermines important individual liberties by diluting the right to refuse treatment. Understanding and evaluating these criticisms requires analysis of the intersection among empirical, conceptual, and justificatory claims. According to the analysis presented here, advocates of preventive commitment can defend a legitimate role for preventive commitment. This analysis applies to preventive commitment as a dispositional alternative within a comprehensive institution of civil commitment involving distinct parens patriae and police power components.     

Street Youths and the Proximate and Contingent Causes of Instrumental Crime: Untangling Anomie Theory

Utilizing a sample of 300 homeless street youths, the research examines the individual‐level sub‐model of Baumer’s interpretation of Merton’s anomie theory. The paper explores the role the interaction between monetary goals and weak commitment to legitimate means plays in the generation of instrumental crime and the manner in which this interaction is itself moderated by blocked opportunities, monetary dissatisfaction, social modeling, cultural support, and the perceived risk of punishment. The findings reveal that a weak commitment to legitimate means, but not monetary goals, has a lower order impact on the willingness to commit instrumental crime. These two variables, however, do not interact to predict intentions to offend. Instead the findings reveal that blocked opportunities and higher levels of monetary dissatisfaction moderate the relationship between the monetary goals and weak commitment to legitimate means interaction and the willingness to offend. Findings are discussed and suggestions for further research are offered.