A Latent Class Analysis of Victimization Among Middle and High School Students in California

School victimization is associated with negative social-emotional outcomes and risky behaviors. Most studies have provided definitions and measures of victimization, depicting a limited characterization of victimization in schools. More nuanced analyses of school victimization are needed to assess the heterogeneous pattern of victimization in schools. The current study explored distinct victimization configurations in a diverse sample of 418,483 middle and high school students in California, utilizing latent class analyses to account for type and frequency of victimization. The results uncover four classes of victimization, including frequent verbal, physical, and sexual victimization; occasional verbal and physical victimization; verbal and sexual victimization; and no victimization. Older age was associated with a lower likelihood of frequent verbal, sexual, and physical victimization and African American youth were more likely to be classified in this class. Females were more likely to be in the verbal and sexual victimization class than males.     

Students Behaving Badly

Abstract

Students experience many forms of victimization at school, yet few studies address more than one form of victimization. In this study, we explored the incidence of multiple forms of peer victimization, including direct verbal and physical, relational, and sexual harassment victimization among urban middle school students. We examined the overlap and gender differences among victimization experiences. Further, social cognitive theory was used to better understand how victimization experiences influence beliefs about the acceptability of aggression. Youth in 6th through 8th grades (N=111) completed self-report measures assessing peer victimization experiences and normative beliefs about aggression. Results revealed overlap between victimization experiences, suggesting that students commonly experience multiple forms of victimization by peers. Males who were sexually harassed held the strongest beliefs supporting aggression in situations without provocation. Our findings suggest that direct physical/verbal, relational, and sexual harassment victimization are inter-related experiences among youth, and these experiences differ by sex.     

An Exploratory Study of Violence and Aggression Against Teachers in Middle and High Schools: Prevalence,Predictors, and Negative Consequences

ABSTRACT

Limited empirical findings suggest that teacher victimization at school is highly prevalent, with detrimental negative impacts on victimized teachers. Given the scarce body of literature on teacher victimization, further research is necessary to investigate its extent, predictors, and negative consequences. The present research, using a representative sample of 1,628 teachers in the southwest region of the United States, indicates a high prevalence of violence and aggression directed against teachers. Also, the research found that teachers’ uncertain and helping/friendly behaviors toward students were significantly related to various types of teacher victimization. Experiences involving the five victimization types (theft/property damage, physical assault, verbal abuse, sexual harassment, and noncontact aggression) are correlated with teachers’ self-reported job performance, student trust, safety at school, and thoughts about quitting. Directions for future research and policy implications are considered in the context of these findings.     

Offense Type as Determinant of Revenge and Forgiveness After Victimization: Adolescents’ Responses to Injustice and Aggression

Victims of injustice and aggression may have strong feelings about the perpetrator(s) that may impede their efforts to cope with the victimizing experience. We examined to what extent adolescents’ interpersonal responses to victimization in terms of revenge and forgiveness depend on offense type. Of 455 Dutch students from various educational levels, 379 participants reported being victimized by incidents of injustice, aggression, or violence. These incidents were categorized according to type and related to respondents’ self-reported revenge, avoidance, and benevolence toward the perpetrator. Victims of criminal offenses (physical and sexual violence, theft, and threat) reported less forgiving motivations than victims of noncriminal transgressions (bullying, ostracism, and other forms of indirect aggression). Sexual violence primarily elicited avoidance, rather than revenge. Gender differences in responses to victimization depended on offense type, too. Hence, to enhance our knowledge about revenge and forgiveness after victimization, future studies may need to take offense characteristics into account.     

Bystander Intervention,Bullying, and Victimization: A Multilevel Analysis of New Zealand High Schools

This study examines the association between schools and student bullying behaviors and victimization among a nationally representative sample (N = 9,107) of New Zealand high school students. In particular, the study sought to explore the role of characteristics of schools and school culture with respect to bystander behavior, while controlling for individual student factors related to victimization and bullying behaviors. Results indicated that a total of 6% of students report being bullied weekly or more often and 5% of students reported bullying other students at least weekly. Results of multilevel analyses suggested that schools characterized by students taking action to stop bullying were associated with less victimization and less reported bullying among students. In contrast, in schools where students reported teachers take action to stop bullying, there was no decline in victimization or bullying. Overall, these findings support whole-school approaches that aid students to take action to stop bullying.     

Child and Parent Perspectives on Routes to and from School in High Crime Neighborhoods

Abstract

This study examined children's understanding of the danger and potential harm they face while traveling to and from school in two urban neighborhoods with high crime and violence rates. A qualitative methodology was used to explore how students negotiate danger or potential harm within the context of their routes to and from school.Structured interviews with three hundred seventy-seven second, fourth, sixth, and eighth graders (and 106 of their parents) were analyzed utilizing an inductive coding process (emergent themes). When students were asked to discuss the safety of their school routes, emergent themes included student's fear/awareness of death, fear of violence/victimization, and fear of gangs. Students also mentioned getting driven to school and better monitoring as ways that their school routes could be made safer. Parents discussed similar fears and concerns as their children. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Context Matters: Reactive and Proactive Bystander Action to Prevent Sexual and Dating Violence in High Schools

ABSTRACT

Given high rates of relationship violence among adolescents, there is a need to understand variables that influence adolescents’ helping behaviors to reduce risk for dating and sexual violence (reactive) and promote prevention before violence happens or risk factors are evident (proactive). The current paper examined individual and school variables related to greater actionism in a large sample of high school students. Baseline, cross-sectional data used in the current analyses were gathered before intervention as part of a prevention program evaluation across 25 high schools in New England from students in grades 9–12 (N= 3,404). Students who self-reported a greater number of proactive actions taken were students who identified as sexual minorities, had a history of victimization, and were in schools with supportive peer norms. The current findings suggest a model for prevention that might include training individuals and attending to school level variables.     

Student–Teacher Congruence in Reported Rates of Physical and Relational Victimization Among Elementary-School-Age Children: The Moderating Role of Gender and Age

The present study investigated the degree of congruence between student self-reports and teacher reports of relational and physical victimization and tested whether gender and age moderated these relations. Mixed effect regression models were conducted on a sample of 294 students (50.7% male) in Grades 2 to 5 and their classroom teachers. Results revealed that, despite its covert nature, greater agreement was found between students and teachers on reported rates of relational victimization. However, contrary to our expectations, teacher and student reports of physical victimization were unrelated. Greater agreement was also found among girls and teachers as well as between older students and teachers, however, on reported rates of relational victimization only. Implications are discussed in light of school-based intervention efforts to address peer victimization among students.     

The Victimization of LGBTQ Students at School: A Meta-Analysis

ABSTRACT

Although research suggests that LGBTQ youth are at risk for victimization at school, it remains unclear just how much more likely they are to be victimized relative to heterosexual or cisgender youth, or the conditions under which their risks for victimization are highest. Accordingly, we conducted a meta-analysis on the relationship between LGBTQ identification and school victimization. Multilevel analysis of 276 effect size estimates, from 55 studies, revealed a moderate overall mean effect size (r = .155). Moderator analyses indicated the relationship was stronger for transgender youth, homophobic victimization, and students in the Western United States; and weaker for questioning youth. We conclude with recommendations for policy and future research, and suggest that theories of victimization be broadened to better explain the risks that LGBTQ students face.     

Same- and Cross-Gender Sexual Harassment Victimization in Middle School: A Developmental-Contextual Perspective

Using a developmental-contextual framework, the present study investigated risk factors for same- and cross-gender sexual harassment victimization in 986 middle school students. Participants completed questionnaires in the fall and spring of the same school year so risk factors could be explored longitudinally. Results revealed that gender differences existed for same- and cross-gender forms of harassment. While girls reported more instances of receiving same- and cross-gender unwanted sexual attention, boys were more likely to report being victims of same-gender gender harassment. Important differences in risk factors also existed. Being bullied in the fall and feeling disconnected from school were risk factors for same-gender victimization but not for cross-gender victimization. Romantic relationship status, which was a significant risk factor for both same- and cross-gender victimization, was qualified by significant gender interactions. Results are explained through a developmental-contextual lens and implications for intervention are discussed.     

Steroid Use and School Violence,School Violent Victimization,and Suicidal Ideation Among Adolescents

School violence, school violent victimization, and suicidal ideation among adolescents are serious public health concerns. This pilot study investigated the influence of steroid use on problem behaviors. Secondary data analyses of the 2014 PRIDE Questionnaire were performed based on information collected from 38,414 high school adolescents. Results indicated high rates of school violence, school violent victimization, and suicidal ideation. Steroid use was directly related to all three problem behaviors. Results varied based on sex, race, grade level, and ethnicity. Health professionals, schools, and prevention specialists may benefit from the findings of this study. Examination of other factors related to steroid use in relation to the aforementioned problem behaviors is imperative.     

The Relationship Between Bullying Victimization and School Avoidance: An Examination of Direct Associations,Protective Influences,and Aggravating Factors

This study examines the impact of bullying victimization on school avoidance by proposing the following hypotheses: (1) Net of other factors, students who have experienced bullying victimization are more likely to engage in school avoidance behaviors; (2) There are protective factors that will decrease this relationship between bullying victimization and avoidance behaviors; and (3) There are aggravating factors that will increase this relationship between bullying victimization and avoidance behaviors. Binary logistic regression models are estimated, using data from the 2011 National Crime Victimization Survey: School Crime Supplement, with a nationally representative sample of 6,547 middle and high school students. Findings provide strong support for the effect of bullying victimization on school avoidance, such that students who have experienced bullying are more likely to avoid places in school. Additionally, results suggest that participation in school activities and fear can influence the relationship between bullying victimization and school avoidance.     

The Positive Role of School Climate on School Victimization,Depression, and Suicidal Ideation Among School-Attending Homeless Youth

Although homeless youth face a higher risk of victimization and mental health problems, little is known about school victimization and mental health outcomes for school-attending homeless youth. This study examined the relationship between school climate and school-related victimization and mental health problems among homeless youth. Multivariate analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between school climate factors and school victimization, suicidal ideation, and depression tendency in a representative sample of 1,169 school-attending homeless youth in 9th and 11th grades in California. Findings show that school-attending homeless youth are at high risk of being victimized at school and have high rates of depression tendency and suicidal ideation. Positive school climate, especially perceived high expectations from teachers and safety in school, was associated with lower rates of school victimization and mental health problems. The role of supportive school climate in the lives of school-attending homeless youth is discussed and future implications are suggested.     

Exposure to School Bullying and Psychological Health in Young Adulthood: A Prospective 10-Year Follow-Up Study

Being bullied at school is strongly related to psychological health complaints at the same time point. Studies have also found long-term associations, but few have combined a prospective design with children’s own reports on bullying, and conducted gender-specific analyses. The present study assesses health consequences in young adulthood of self-reported victimization in adolescence using data from Child-LNU in 2000 and the follow-up in 2010 (including 63% of the original sample, n = 813). At ages 10–18 a clear cross-sectional association was found for both girls and boys. Among girls, exposure to bullying also predicted psychological complaints 10 years later, at ages 20–28 (OR = 2.86). This association was not explained by socioeconomic circumstances, neither in adolescence nor in young adulthood. Instead, it can partly be understood as victimization, among adolescent girls, being associated with negative self-image and psychological health as well as with deficits in social resources more generally.     

Relational Victimization,Callous-Unemotional Traits,and Hostile Attribution Bias Among Preadolescents

The aim of this study was to investigate the association of callous-unemotional traits, hostile attribution bias, and relational victimization experiences among 228 Greek preadolescent students attending the last two primary school grades. No significant gender differences were found. Correlations showed positive associations among relational victimization, callous-unemotional traits, and hostile attribution bias. Multiple regression indicated that preadolescents with high callous and unemotional traits and hostile attribution bias who experienced physical aggression were more likely to be relationally victimized. Results emphasize the role of both personal and social-cognitive factors in relational victimization, and are discussed in terms of their practical implications.     

University and Community Resources for Sexual Assault Survivors: Familiarity With and Use of Services Among College Students

Scholars have highlighted the prevalence of sexual assault on college campuses. Universities are generally equipped to address victimization through a range of resources, including counseling and psychological services. These resources are instrumental for posttrauma recovery, but students must be aware of and willing to use available services. This study used a sample of 505 survey responses collected at a mid-sized, public, Southern university regarding community and campus resource knowledge, familiarity, and service use. The majority of participants were unaware of resources. Females reported increased community resource familiarity compared to males. Multivariate models revealed distress disclosure, sexual victimization history, and race were significant predictors of service use but criminal justice major and law enforcement career plans were not significant. Implications are discussed.     

The Awareness of Risky Peer Group Behaviors on School Grounds as Predictors of Students' Victimization on School Grounds

Abstract

This study examined the effects of the awareness of risky peer group behaviors (e.g., drug use, students carrying weapons, or vandalism on school grounds) on students' experiences of school victimization. This is one of the few studies conducted in the Middle East that examine issues of school violence. This article (Part I) focuses on elementary school students. Part II is forthcoming in a future article and will focus on junior high school students. The sample was drawn from central and northern Israel and consisted of 1346 Arab and 1478 Jewish students (4th-6th grades). Students completed an anonymous self-report questionnaire, which was based on the California School Climate Survey (Furlong et al, 1997). The findings from a hierarchical regression analysis show that elementary school students' awareness of risky peer group behaviors in school contexts is one of the strongest predictors of their own personal victimization, controlling for gender, ethnicity, and grade level. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Violent Behaviors in Rural and Urban Schools

Abstract

Despite the fact that many incidents of extreme violence have taken place in rural areas there is still some resistance on the part of rural school administrators to admit that violence is a problem in their schools. This article provides a comparison of rural and urban student and staff self-report of school violence (perpetration, victimization and weapon carrying) and discusses the implications of these findings.     

Students’ Perceptions of Safety at School After Sandy Hook

High profile school shootings have served as pivotal events for developing policies to promote student safety. Although previous studies indicate that exposure to violence is associated with feeling unsafe at school and poorer academic and psychosocial outcomes, research on the relationship between widely publicized acts of school violence and students’ perceptions of safety is scant. This study examines this relationship utilizing data from 66,511 high school students from a single state by comparing survey responses from students who completed surveys before and after the shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary School. Although several models indicated a statistically significant relationship between Sandy Hook and perceptions of safety, the sizes of the effects were not meaningful. Implications for policy and research are discussed.     

A Cross-National Examination of School Violence and Nonattendance Due to School Violence in Taiwan,Hong Kong,and Mainland China: A Rasch Model Approach

ABSTRACT

This study examined the similarities and differences between three distinct Chinese societies (Taiwan, Hong Kong, and China) regarding the contribution of gender and grade level to school violence, the ranking orders of perpetration and victimization behavior, and the correlates of school nonattendance due to violence. A cross-national random sample of 2,582 junior high school students was obtained. The results of Rasch analyzes revealed that verbal violence is most frequent. Male students are most likely to be aggressive and victimized. Grade-level differences in school violence were shown to be weak or insignificant. School nonattendance is generally associated with being kicked, punched, socially excluded, blackmailed, threatened, or sexually kissed without consent. The results were similar across societies. The findings imply that the contextual differences between Chinese societies may not account for different effects of gender and grade level on school violence, behavioral patterns of school violence, and correlates of school nonattendance.