Crime Victimization: Assessing Differences Between Violent and Nonviolent Experiences

Experiencing a criminal victimization is among one of the most stressful human experiences. A cross-sectional study of victims of violent crime and victims of nonviolent crime suggests that there are statistically significant differences in experiences in the initial aftermath of the crime event and a few common effects. This article describes the common effects that are associated with criminal victimization in the context of intense distress and discusses the theoretical implications of well-being in the coping process. One hundred seventy-five victims of violent or nonviolent crime were interviewed. Implications for social work practice and theory and future research are delineated.     

A Social-Psychological Process of “Fear of Crime” for Men and Women: Revisiting Gender Differences from a New Perspective

Prior research has identified gender as a significant predictor of crime fear. Specifically, women are typically more fearful of crime than men, despite being relatively less likely to be victimized. The current study examines different ways men and women may think about crime and victimization within their neighborhoods, using contemporary social-psychological models of victimization worry. Data were collected from a sample of community residents (N = 713) living on the Gold Coast of Queensland, Australia. Results suggest that men’s and women’s fear of crime and perceptions of victimization threat are dependent on crime type and can be represented by a number of relationships among different social-psychological dimensions of victimization worry. The study concludes with practical implications for researchers seeking to examine the complex associations between gender and fear of crime.     

Reaping What They Sow? Victim-Offender Overlap Perceptions and Victim Blaming Attitudes

Examining the tendency to attribute blame to crime victims reveals a striking dichotomy. Some types, such as children, elicit intense emotional reactions from the public. Alternatively, others, such as the typical victims of street crimes, garner substantially less concern. According to the “just world” hypothesis, these latter groups may be perceived by the public as criminally involved, and so “blameworthy” for their victimization. We test this hypothesis—specifically, we evaluate whether perceptions of the extent of victims’ involvement in crime are associated with dispositional attributions for victimization. Data from a recent national survey (N = 760) are analyzed. To extend generalizability, we replicate results with a college sample (N = 733). Findings indicate that victim-offender overlap perceptions vary consistently by crime type. There is also consistent evidence that perceiving a larger victim-offender overlap is associated with the view that the causes of criminal victimization are, in part, dispositional—and thus that crime victims hold personal responsibility.     

An Exploration of Victimization in the Older Lesbian Population

Research on lesbian, gay bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) victimization typically focuses on bias crime and intimate partner violence, with little focus on the experience of victimization more generally in this minority community. Meanwhile, the LGBT population has aged with an increasing number falling in the over 65 years old age group. This older population, however, has been largely sidelined in research on LGBT victimization. The authors aim to fill this gap by exploring the victimization experiences of a sample of older lesbians. The findings suggest that older lesbians have a unique victimization experience including a decreasing experience with bias victimization with age.     

Sexual Assault Victimization,Fear of Sexual Assault,and Self-Protective Behaviors: A Test of General Strain Theory

According to Agnew’s General Strain Theory, many individuals who experience strain are more likely to engage in crime or become delinquent. To date, past research has examined the relationship between victimization and fear of crime, as well as the corresponding relationship between fear of crime and self-protective behaviors. Yet, the mediating role fear of sexual assault may have in accounting for the association between prior sexual assault victimization and self-protective behaviors has not been evaluated. The current study addresses this gap in the literature using data collected from a random sample of college students from 12 universities in the United States. The results indicated that the relationship between prior sexual assault victimization and self-protective behavior is partially mediated by fear of sexual assault. The study concludes with a discussion of implications and limitations, as well as directions for future research.     

The Extent,Nature, and Consequences of School Victimization: A Review of Surveys and Recent Research

ABSTRACT

The authors present a comprehensive overview of the current literature on the extent, correlates, and consequences of school-based incidents of victimization in the United States. The primary sources of data on crime and victimization in schools, including periodic, nationally representative surveys, are reviewed. These data are used to describe the scope and types of victimization most frequently encountered by students while in school, as well as historic shifts in trends. The authors also summarize the main correlates of school victimization both at the individual and school levels; describe the health, psychological, behavioral, and peer-network consequences of school victimization; and discuss the factors that can mitigate its consequences for youths. The discussion concludes by outlining future directions for this important line of research.     

Victim Offender Overlap: Dual Trajectory Examination of Victimization and Offending Among Young Felony Offenders Over Seven Years

The relationship between victimization and offending has been shown consistently across different samples, settings, and crime types. This study uses data from the Pathways to Desistance Study to examine dual trajectories of offending between the ages of 15 and 24 in a sample of male felony offenders. The dual trajectory models demonstrate substantial convergence in victimization and offending. And while there are sizable numbers of youth who continue to be victimized, but desist or decrease in their offending behaviors, very few youth continue to offend in the absence of continued victimization. This study also proposes and tests three criminological theories that have been employed as explanations for the victim-offender overlap—low self-control, lifestyles/routine activities, and street-code attitudes. The logistic regression results indicate that involvement in risky and/or unstructured, unsupervised activities is a key correlate of the victim-offender overlap. The strength of the relationship between routine activity variables and the victim-offender overlap supports the provision of structured, supervised activities for youth and young adults as a way of preventing future victimization and offending, particularly among youth who have high exposure to violence.     

Placing School Victimization in a Global Context

ABSTRACT

Although often considered to be safe havens, schoolhouses have a darker side: they are places where students are victimized. Research in the United States shows that students are victimized by various forms of misconduct, ranging from property-related crime (e.g., theft, destruction) to violent behavior (e.g., assault, homicide) in schools. Notably, international studies reveal that school victimization is a serious concern across the globe. In this context, the present study provides an overview of the extent and nature of school victimization from international perspective. Special attention is given to bullying, a form of victimization found across the globe. Important school-based prevention efforts developed outside the United States are discussed. Finally, this study raises awareness to another type of serious victimization—terrorist attacks—that are on the rise, particularly among nations located in the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and Africa.     

An Examination of the Effects of Different Victimization Types on Psychological and Behavioral Health Outcomes and the Mediating Role of Stress

Although a considerable amount of research has highlighted the link between interpersonal victimization and adverse psychological and behavioral health, a paucity of research has examined and compared the effects of multiple forms of victimization in the same study. There is also a limited understanding of the underlying individual factors (e.g., emotional processes) that might link experiences of victimization to psychological and behavioral health adversities. To address these gaps, the author used a nationally representative sample of 19,422 Canadians aged 15 years old or older to examine the effects of different types of victimization on psychological and behavioral health outcomes, and to determine whether these associations are mediated by perceived stress. Results revealed that some victimization types (i.e., personal, household/property, cyberbully, ex-partner physical/sexual and emotional abuse) had statistically significant adverse effects on psychological and behavioral health outcomes (i.e., self-report mental health, life satisfaction, satisfaction with safety from crime, and alcohol/drug abuse). Results also revealed that perceived stress mediated the association between some victimization types and psychological, but not behavioral, health outcomes. Discussion points toward the utility of examining multiple victimization types, as well as other converging individual factors or adversities, in explaining psychological and behavioral health outcomes.     

Bodies and Bullying: The Interaction of Gender,Race, Ethnicity,Weight, and Inequality With School Victimization

The problem of bullying among youth is receiving more attention because of long-lasting detrimental consequences of victimization at school. Research demonstrates that gender, race, ethnicity, and weight are separately linked to bullying victimization; however, little is known about the interaction of these factors in relationship to victimization at school. This study utilizes the 2005/2006 Health Behavior in School-Aged Children (HBSC) data to investigate how bodies (i.e., gender, race, ethnicity, and weight) matter with youth victimization. Drawing from the 2005/2006 HBSC sample consisting of 7,143 youth, findings indicate that interactions of gender, race, ethnicity, and weight are linked to school bullying victimization.     

The Complexity of Public Attitudes Toward Sex Crimes

Previous research suggests that public opinion about crime is nuanced, as it has been found to vary greatly depending upon the type of questions asked and the amount of information provided. Few have similarly examined the complexity of public attitudes specifically about sex crimes. A survey was administered to a sample of U.S. residents utilizing the factorial survey method. The results suggest that specific details about the offense, offender, and victim had a significant effect on perceptions. The findings point to discrepancies between policy and public opinion, as well as to the importance of educating the public about the realities of sexual offending and victimization.     

Disentangling the Impact of Female Victimization Across Racial and Ethnic Lines

Men and women experience violent victimization at comparable rates. Yet, women are more likely to experience intimate partner violence, sexual violence, and stalking, as well as witness the victimization of others more often than their male counterparts. Victimization is a leading predictor of subsequent criminal behavior, and the threat of victimization or witnessing the harm of another is also a significant strain. Using the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods data, this study examines how Black, Latina, and White female youth uniquely experience and respond to direct and vicarious victimization. The outcomes provide insight into the different ways Black, Latina, and White young women experience victimization, respond emotionally to victimization, as well as criminally cope with victimization. Findings suggest there are significant differences in vicarious victimization experiences, but not direct victimization experiences, between Black, Latina, and White female youth. Furthermore, victimization experiences do impact the likelihood of young women’s offending differently depending on their race or ethnicity. And finally, bootstrapped mediation analyses reveal negative emotions differentially impact the relationship between victimization and offending for Black, Latina, and White female youth. Thus, while there are similarities between young women’s experiences, this study highlights there are also many differences. Therefore, a one-size-fits-all approach cannot address the complexities of violent victimization. Without considering these differences, we risk further victimizing our most vulnerable populations. This study, and research like it, are needed to better combat violence against, as well as craft responses to and provide services for, female victims of all colors.     

Comparison of Impact of Procedural Justice and Outcome on Victim Satisfaction: Evidence From Victims’ Experience With Registration of Property Crimes in India

Crime victim–police interface and registration of crime are the early and fundamental interactions in the criminal justice system. The process of lodging a complaint is marked by the pain of victimization, sharing of information, and expectation of quick remedial action from the police. The nature and quality of experience of the victim and outcomes impact the level of satisfaction with services of police. Through a survey of victims of property crimes, in different areas of a state in India, the author examines the impact of procedural justice and outcomes on victim satisfaction. The study illuminates the outcome oriented expectations of the victim, and the unique dynamics of victim–police interaction, which strains the legal ethical framework of the criminal justice system.     

Gun Carrying and Gun Victimization Among American Adolescents: A Fresh Look at a Nationally Representative Sample

A scant literature has identified gun carrying as a potential risk factor for victimization at the individual level. To date, however, research has generally focused on high-risk individuals rather than samples drawn from the general population. Additionally, prior studies have not often enough included controls robust enough to feel strongly that the relationship between gun carrying and victimization, gun victimization in particular, is not simply the spurious outcome of factors that influence both variables. The current study uses data from Add Health participants (N = 13,568) to look at the effect of gun carrying on gun victimization among adolescents. Results suggest that even when robust controls are considered, a measure of gun carrying significantly and positively correlates with gun victimization. The results support a model of the gun carrying-gun victimization relationship wherein gun carrying increases risks for gun victimization independent of factors that may influence both risky behaviors and victimization. Implications for theory and policy are discussed.     

Sex Differences in the Health Risk Behavior Outcomes of Childhood Bullying Victimization

Short- and long-term health consequences of bullying victimization are well documented and include physical and mental health issues as well as increased involvement in risky behavior, but research exploring sex differences in victimization outcomes is still limited. This study uses data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth—1997 to examine the consequences of victimization by sex and, more specifically, relationships between bullying victimization and later health risk behaviors—including risky sexual activity, smoking, alcohol use, and drug use. Multivariate analyses identified sex differences for specific health risk indicators, and a substantial difference was evident for overall risk.     

Age and Gender Variations in the Victimization-Offending Relationship in a National Sample,Ages 11–88

The finding that victims and offenders are often the same individuals has led to attempts at explaining the positive correlation between victimization and offending. Much of the evidence for the positive relationship between victimization and offending, however, is based on samples of adolescents and young adults, or on data with other limitations. In the present study, we use national data on self-reported victimization and offending to examine the victimization-offending relationship across the life span, from adolescent to middle-aged to elderly respondents. The results indicate that, with respect to the typical victimization measures included in the National Crime Victimization Survey and in many self-report surveys, the relationship between victimization and offending declines from adolescence and young adulthood to middle age and older ages. The results also vary by gender, with a positive relationship between victimization being present primarily or solely for males for some offenses. These results suggest that explanations of the victimization-offending relationship need to account for the changing nature of the relationship between victimization and offending across the life span and the different relationships between victimization and offending for females and males.     

Substance-Abusing Female Offenders as Victims: Chronological Sequencing of Pathways Into the Criminal Justice System

This study assesses the entrance of substance-abusing female offenders (N = 1,209) into the criminal justice system through temporal patterns (using age of first victimization, drug use, and arrest). Nine pathways were identified. Unexpectedly, the leading path was a sequence where drug use preceded arrest in absence of childhood victimization. However, women under a path inclusive of victimization possessed more risk factors. Findings support feminist pathway research, which states that childhood victimization is generally present in female offenders’ lives. Nevertheless, results also revealed that a drug pathway without childhood abuse proved to be as important and even more dominant among criminal justice–involved women.     

From Victimization to Criminalization: General Strain Theory and the Relationship Between Poly-victimization and Delinquency

Although it is well established that victimization and delinquency are related, it is not clear how this relationship works, and victims and offenders are still often studied and treated as two distinct groups. General strain theory views victimization as a form of injustice, which can give rise to anger and eventually lead to delinquency. The authors examine victimization, in particular polyvictimization, as a criminogenic factor. Based on a sample of 1,400 youths 12–17 years old in Quebec (Canada), they examine polyvictimization in relation to delinquency as well as negative emotions that can result from victimization namely anger, depression, and posttraumatic stress. The findings show support for general strain theory and highlight the importance of anger for the relationship between victimization and juvenile delinquency.     

Violent Victimization and Future Expectations: Results from a Longitudinal Study of At-Risk Youth

The relationship between offending and expectations for the future is well documented. Despite the link between offending and victimization and the wealth of research documenting the negative effects of victimization, how victimization shapes expectations for the future has not been fully explored. The authors investigate this relationship using longitudinal data derived from the Pathways to Desistance study. Using fixed-effects regression models for panel data that account for the effects of excluded time-invariant covariates, the authors examine time-varying factors such as self-reported delinquency, gang membership, binge drinking and drug use, and peer delinquency. The authors find that expectations for the future are decreased in waves in which a person is violently victimized. This finding indicates a potential intervention strategy for those who have been victimized, focusing on cognitive assessments postvictimization that could be useful in reducing revictimization as well as reoffending.     

Does Recent Victimization Impact Confidence in the Criminal Justice System?

This study assesses whether recent victimization influences one’s confidence in the criminal justice system. Specifically, the study tests whether the predictors of confidence in major types of actors in the justice system are different for victims and nonvictims. British Crime Survey (BCS) data are analyzed using a series of structural equation models with multiple group methods. Overall, the findings support the idea that there is little difference between victims and nonvictims in how views of legal actors predict overall confidence. Additionally, prosecutors are slightly more influential on system confidence, regardless of victimization experience. Policy implications and future research directions are discussed.