美国专利制度的“分水岭”

创造性是专利的本质属性和终极要求.它以"本领域普通技术人员"来判断"专利技术"与"现有技术"问的区别是否"显而易见",以决定是否授权.美最高院在KSR案的判决中首次有条件赋予普通技术人员以创造力,这使今后两技术间的区别更易被认为"显而易见",专利申请和保护更加困难.     

从非显而易见性看中药专利保护

本文从专利实质要件之一的非显而易见性入手,首先阐述非显而易见性的内涵,引出中药专利保护的“困境”,然后从非显而易见性审查步骤和间接证据两个方面论述非显而易见性不构成对申请中药专利保护的障碍。希望通过本文的论述,为中药专利保护提供一定的理论支持,为进一步的研究奠定基础。     

美国专利制度的“分水岭”——评KSR案中美国专利“显而易见性”标准

创造性是技术专利的本质属性和终极要求，它是通过“本领域普通技术人员”来判断专利技术同现有技术之间是否“显而易见”，以决定是否授予专利。因此其判断标准直接影响专利取得的难易程度，是专利审查中最重要的标准。美国最高院在KSR案中的终审判决将使得今后两技术间的比较更加“显而易见”。而此次的变化将很有可能成为全球化的开端。     

美国最高法院KSR案对美国软件专利发展之影响

2007.4.30美国最高法院对于非显而易见性的认定标准作出了一项影响深远的判决-KSR案(KSR v.Telenex,550 U.S.--,127 S.Ct.1727,82 U.S.P.Q-2d 1385).这对于当时美国软件专利犹如脱缰野马般朝向开放的发展方向,可说是重重踩了煞车.虽然过去关于KSR案已有相当多的论述,然而对于影响非显而易见最为关键的因素("所属技术领域之通常知识者"的创造能力之演变)却探讨不多,因此将尝试重新检视美国对于非显而易见性的认定标准之演进,期能了解KSK案在其中的意涵,进而探讨对于美国软件专利发展之影响.     

专利的非显而易见性判断——对美国最高法院Teleflex案判决的解析

美国最高法院在新近判决的Teleflex案中认为判断非显而易见性并没有一个确定的标准,严格适用"动机-教导-启示"的标准与专利法并不相符,"协同效应"标准以及"出人意料技术效果"标准是可适用的有益标准。美国最高法院在Teleflex案中以及先前在判断非显而易见性时所采取的立场表明,一个国家的专利判断标准必须与其国家的经济与技术发展水平相适应。中国专利的非显而易见性的判断标准过低,将阻碍中国的经济发展与技术创新,需要对之作出必要的修订。     

中国专利创造性条件的改进建议

创造性、新颖性、实用性是专利授权的三个实质条件,其中尤以创造性最主观、最难以把握。创造性在美国称为"非显而易见性",在欧洲称为"创造性步骤",在日本称为"进步性",其意义基本相同。而在我国,"创造性"由两部分构成:一是"突出的实质性特点",等同于"非显而易见性",其构成要素之一是"现有技术"。为了有效防止垃圾专利泛滥,建议对"现有技术"做出最大范围的认定;二是"显著的进步",体现为"有益的技术效果",形式上看似中国专利创造性条件比其他国家更高,而实际上这是专利实用性条件的主要内涵。为了简化创造性的审查,建议我国在专利创造性条件中取消对"显著的进步"的要求。     

扩张还是限制?——从美国专利判例法的演变趋势看我国专利法修改

进入21世纪后,美国各级联邦法院在专利方面的判例出现新的趋向。Bilski案判决对方法类可专利主题的限缩和KSR案判决对非显而易见性标准的收紧,说明专利授权条件趋于严格化。而eBay案对永久性禁令适用转趋谨慎的态度和Lucent案控制侵权赔偿数额的努力,说明专利侵权责任趋于缓和化。判例法的上述变化标志着自20世纪80年代以来的专利扩张周期行将结束,美国专利法可能处于从扩张转为限缩的拐点。美国的法制实践对我们不无启示:专利保护的重心在于司法,我国当务之急是提高专利审判的司法能力和改善外部法制环境。以修法方式系统性地提高专利保护水平,则应缓行。     

2000年美国《商业方法专利促进法议案》评析

2000年10月3日,美国众议院共和党议员Rick·Boucher & Howard·Berman提出了一项旨在加强和完善商业方法专利的议案<商业方法专利促进法>(Business Method Patent Improvement 2000)1.虽然该议案还须经第107届国会讨论才能成为法律,但它揭示并试图解决美国社会各界对商业方法专利争论的主要问题.本文将对该议案的主要内容进行介绍和评析,以认识商业方法专利议案提出的背景、存在的问题以及其他国家或地区对商业方法专利所持的态度.     

美国2011年专利法第一案Myriad案评——人类基因可专利性的再思考

Myriad公司从人体DNA中分离的两种基因片断(BRCA1,BRCA2)获得了专利。美国分子病理协会等提起诉讼,宣称人类基因不是可专利性客体,该专利无效。上诉法院判定该基因片断是合法的专利客体,但该判决与最高法院的先例并不完全吻合。在成文法及司法先例对基因类专利都没有明确规定的情况下,公共政策的分析是更适当的切入角度。从政策性角度分析,否认人类基因的可专利性是对社会最有利的政策。专利制度是工具,不是目的。加拿大的有益实践启示我国也应坚持否认人类基因类专利的政策。     

专利“三性”标准的历史演进及其启示

新颖性、非显而易见性和实用性这专利“三性”标准的形成及每一标准的内在演进都遵循了特定的历史顺序.实用性最早诞生,并从模糊走向清晰;新颖性紧随而来,从相对变成绝对;非显而易见性产生较晚,变化也最为复杂.专利“三性”标准的历史演进体现了经济政策和科技进步的影响,并仍因这种影响存在变动的可能.上述历史经验表明,我国在专利审查实践中对“三性”标准的适用应符合经济和科技发展的现状和需求.     

Software patents in the United States: A balanced approach

This paper tracks the interesting journey of software patents in the United States from both a historic and current standpoint. The U.S patent system has drifted from being strict in the 1970s to being fairly lenient in 1990s and now again strict since 2007. The revolutionizing and famous Bilski case that is redefining the boundaries of software patents is described, and the impact of this Court case on software patents is discussed. The challenges in issuing software patents in terms of proving novelty and non-obviousness are presented in an attempt to bring forward some of the questions in the software patent debate. The uniqueness of software as an invention is analyzed to understand why software should be considered differently compared to other industries. The advantages and disadvantages of software patents are discussed. The paper concludes by providing recommendations and proposing a balanced approach to software patents.     

Physicians' conflicts of interest in Japan and the United States: lessons for the United States

Japanese health policy shows that even with physician ownership and the absence of for-profit, investor-owned health care, physicians' conflicts of interest thrive. Physician dispensing of drugs and ownership of hospitals and clinics were justified in Japan as ways to avoid commercialization of medicine. Instead, they create physicians' conflicts and fuel patient overuse of services. Japan's Ministry of Health and Welfare (MHW) has responded by introducing per-diem payment, thereby creating incentives to decrease services in ways similar to those of American managed care organizations, but with none of their benefits, such as coordination of care, oversight of physicians practices, and quality assurance. Although the United States and Japanese health care systems are organized and financed differently there is convergence in the source of their physicians' conflicts and the way they are addressed. The United States is starting to integrate institutional and physician payment and align their incentives, in a traditional Japanese way. In so doing, the United States creates new physicians' conflicts and reduces the role of countervailing incentives and power, an advantage of previous policy. Japan, in turn, has combined incentives to increase and decrease services, thus moving closer to the U.S. policy.     

Fugitives in the United States

Little is known, empirically, about fugitives in the U.S. There is no research describing basic facts such as the prevalence of warrants or how features of warrants vary across geography or demographics of fugitives.PurposeTo (A) describe the prevalence of warrants in the U.S., including variation in warrant features across geography as well as demographics of fugitives (age, race, and gender). In addition, the paper (B) models a key feature of warrants (extradition limits) as a function of legal and extra-legal factors.MethodsThis study draws on the Wanted Persons file—the central operational database maintained by the National Criminal Information Center (NCIC) for tracking warrants from all jurisdictions in the United States. Warrant factors are described across demographic groups via bivariate comparisons. Extradition is modeled via a multivariate fixed effects logistic regression framework (i.e., within state comparisons)ResultsThe data show approximately 2 million warrants are active on any given day. Warrant features vary significantly across states (per capita), and fugitive demographics. Extradition varies as a function of legal (e.g., crime seriousness) and extra-legal factors (e.g., race of fugitive).ConclusionsWarrants may provide an important new avenue for scholarship on disparity, criminal carreers, and the administration of justice.     

Community Penalties in the United States

The author discusses some background matters concerning the US criminal justice systems that may provide useful context for non-US readers, and summarises the main general conclusions about the operation of community penalties from two decades' research. He also briefly summarises research concerning each of the major penalties that have been attempted. Why American jurisdictions have been comparatively unsuccessful at use of community penalties as alternatives to incarceration and whether that lack of receptivity can be changed is discussed in the conclusion.     

美国律师管理工作简况

一、美国的律师制度 美国律师业是一个相对比较古老的行业,已有近200年的发展历史。目前,美国律师现有从业人员将近200多万人,近1000人中就有1名律师。美国律师几乎参与到国家政治、经济、文化和公民社会生活的各个方面。参议员、众议员大多数都是律师出身,     

Gun control in the United States

A.B., University of California, Berkeley, 1964; Ph.D., University of California, Irvine, 1970.     

Certifying Death in the United States

Accurately identifying death and its causes is integral to the compilation of mortality data and ultimately to the operation of the criminal justice and public health systems. A clear understanding of who is in charge of such processes is paramount to establishing the quality, or lack thereof, of the information provided in death certificates. Our study provides a comprehensive overview of all state statutes identifying death investigators charged with classifying and certifying death in the United States. We found that state statutes designate a broad range of individuals as responsible for the classification and certification of death. Those vary by state and set of circumstances and can include medical examiners, coroners, pathologists, other physicians, registered nurses, and more. Our findings highlight the important need for a unified standard of qualifications in the medico‐legal system, as well as, regulatory reform at the state level regarding who can complete and sign death certificates.     

中美两国对芬太尼类物质整类列管的刑法隐喻——以美国过罪化问题为视角

芬太尼类物质整类列管制度并非我国创举,其是中美贸易战背景下美国过罪化问题的衍生物,是美国类物质整类列管制度对我国毒品管制的强行附着,这容易导致我国刑法中的毒品范围无限扩大、普通化工原料与毒品难以界分。应对来源于美国的芬太尼类物质整类列管制度提高警惕,该类物质整类列管只是美国将民众注意力从过罪化问题成功转移至全国公共卫生问题的统治策略,目前美国仍在膨胀不断的刑法中寻求芬太尼滥用危机解决之道。