Adolescents' Closeness with Parents,Siblings, and Friends in Three Countries: Canada,Belgium, and Italy

This study compared interpersonal relationships of adolescents from Canada, Belgium, and Italy. The sample of 377 subjects was composed almost equally of boys and girls, grouped into three age groups ranging from 11 to 18 years. Each subject participated in a semistructured interview designed to examine the levels of closeness with the mother, father, siblings, and close friends. The study revealed important discrepancies among the adolescents from the three countries. Family was found to occupy a more central role in the relational world of Italian adolescents, whereas friends were found to occupy a more important place for Canadian youth. Belgian adolescents were found to adopt a middle position between these two extremes. Variations in cultural context and cultural practices are explored as a possible interpretation of these differences. The study also revealed significant consistencies across the three countries: the importance of friends in the relational life of adolescents, the privileged position of the mother in the family, and the distant position of the father.     

Linkages Over Time Between Adolescents' Relationships with Parents and Friends

This 5-wave longitudinal study examines linkages over time between adolescents’ perceptions of relationships with parents and friends with respect to support, negative interaction, and power. A total of 575 early adolescents (54.1% boys) and 337 middle adolescents (43.3% boys) participated. Path analyses mainly showed bidirectional associations between adolescents’ perceptions of parent–adolescent relationships and friendships with a predominantly stronger influence from parent–adolescent relationships to friendships than vice versa in early to middle adolescence and an equal mutual influence in middle to late adolescence. The findings support the theoretical ideas that perceptions of relationships with parents generalize to perceptions of relationships with friends and that relationship skills and principles of adolescent friendships generalize to relationships with parents. Furthermore, the results indicate that the influence of parents decreases, whereas the influence of friends increases, and that both social worlds become equally important and overlapping towards late adolescence.     

Familial Correlates of Overt and Relational Aggression between Young Adolescent Siblings

Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis and multi-group structural equation modeling were used to test correlates of overt and relational aggression between young adolescent siblings across four groups (i.e., male/male, male/female, female/male, and female/female sibling pairs), using 433 predominately European American families. Similar patterns of associations were found across groups when distinguished by gender composition. Family environment emerged as an important factor in explaining internalizing problems as well as overt/relational aggression for both younger and older siblings. While perceived maternal psychological control was significantly positively related to overt/relational aggression and internalizing problems for younger siblings, it was significantly positively associated with only relational aggression for older siblings. Findings also provided partial support for the positive linkages between young adolescents’ aggression and their own and siblings’ internalizing problems above and beyond the aforementioned family and maternal variables. Results of the current study extend the understanding of adolescent aggression to a new relational context, or among siblings, and highlight the role of family factors in promoting or buffering the impact of aggression on internalizing behaviors.

Young Adolescents' Situational Coping during Adult Intimate Partner Violence

A purposively recruited, ethnically diverse sample (N = 27) of young adolescents and their mothers in domestic violence shelters described adolescents' coping responses during adult intimate partner violence as part of a qualitative study using Life Story methods. Findings revealed competing demands and several responses, including: leaving home, collaborating with family members for safety, calling police, verbally or physically intervening, seeking help outside the family, and palliative responses. Participants provided context-rich accounts of coping and coping goals during violence, including information on help-seeking and police involvement. Implications are discussed for future research and developing interventions to improve safety and psychological outcomes.     

The Effect of Family Structure and Family Functioning on Adolescents' Perceptions of Intimate Time Spent with Parents,Siblings, and Peers

In previous research, family structure variables have been operationalized as family size, birth order, sibling spacing, and sibling density. These structure variables have been linked to parental strictness, reasonableness, and supportiveness [J. S. Kidwell (1981), Number of Siblings, Sibling Spacing, and Birth Order: Their Effects on Perceived Parent–Adolescent Relationships, Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 43, pp. 315–333]. Other research has drawn attention to the link between the amount of time adolescents spend with parents and peers and the influence of family relations variables—intensity, duration, and frequency of conflicts. [R. Montemayor (1982), The Relationship Between Parent–Adolescent Conflict and the Amount of Time Adolescents Spend Alone and with Parents and Peers, Child Development, Vol. 53, pp. 1512–1519]. More recent research has related family structure (family size, sibling spacing, and gender) effects to the amount of time adolescents spend with parents, a measure of relationship quality, and a set of measures of discipline [R. A. Richardson et al. (1986), Parent–Child Relationships in Early Adolescence: Effects of Family Structure, Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 48, pp. 805–811]. To date, the questions asked by researchers have not simultaneously explored whether it is the family relations or the family structure variables that contribute most powerfully to the amount of time that female and male adolescents spend with family members and peers. In this research adolescents were asked to report the amount of time they spend with their mother, father, siblings, and peers, and to respond to a questionnaire that has three factors that define family functioning: Parenting Style (democratic decision making), Intimacy, and Conflict [P. Noller et al. (1992), Parent and Adolescent Perceptions of Family Functioning: A Comparison of Clinic and Nonclinic Family, Journal of Adolescence, Vol. 15, pp. 101–115]. The analyses revealed that complex and interpretable family structure and family functioning factors differentially influence whether males and females spend time with family members and peers.     

Gender and Gender-Role Orientation Differences on Adolescents' Coping with Peer Stressors

Gender and gender-role orientation differences were explored on adolescents' coping with peer stressors. Eighth-grade and ninth-grade public junior high school students (N = 285) completed the COPE, reporting the strategies they recently used to deal with a stressful peer-related situation. Measures of gender-role orientation (Bem Sex-Role Inventory) and demographic information also were obtained. Factor analysis of the COPE revealed 4 distinct coping factors: active, avoidant, acceptance, and emotion-focused. The most frequently reported stressful event was arguments/fights with same-sex friends. Girls reported more arguments/fights with opposite-sex friends. Boys reported more physical fights and threats. Students' ratings of how much the situation mattered were used as a covariate in a MANCOVA to compare coping by gender and gender-role orientation, to control for perceived stressfulness of situations. Significant gender-role orientation differences were found for active, acceptance, and emotion-focused coping.     

Adolescents' perceptions of the nature of their communication with parents

This study examines the effects of the age and sex of adolescent and the sex of parent upon adolescents' perceptions of the nature of their communication with each parent. Two hundred and ninety-six adolescents aged 13–17 years completed a communication schedule, rating 14 content areas along six process dimensions: frequency of conversation, initiator, levels of recognition of adolescents' opinion, self-disclosure, domination, and levels of satisfaction. Multivariate analyses of variance were conducted separately for each process dimension. Frequency ratings revealed that adolescent females of all ages reported talking more often with mothers than did adolescent males. Adolescent males, however, believed they talked more often than did females with fathers about interests, sexual issues, and general problems. Mothers were seen to initiate more conversations than fathers on a wide range of topics. Mothers were also perceived as more likely to recognize and accept the adolescents' opinions. Adolescent females believed they disclosed more to mothers than fathers, but males believed they disclosed equally to both parents. Males disclosed more to fathers than did females about their sexual or other problems, while females disclosed more often overall to their mothers than did males. Adolescent males were equally satisfied with their discussions with both parents, but females were more satisfied about conversations with mothers rather than fathers. In sum, the results suggest that mothers' more frequent initiation of discussions with their younger adolescents and their greater recognition of their opinions lead to older adolescents interacting more with mothers than fathers.Ph.D. in Social Psychology, University of Queensland. Her current interests are in the areas of marital and family communication, adolescence, and personal relationships.Ph.D. in Social Psychology, Australian National University, with research interests in adolescence, marital communication, and childless couples.     

Communication with Best Friends About Sex-Related Topics During Emerging Adulthood

During emerging adulthood, relationships with close friends may be particularly important and influential, yet most research on communication about sex-related topics focuses on emerging adults' communication with parents. Two hundred and five college students (61% female, mean age = 20.5) completed surveys about the frequency and quality of their sex-related conversations with same-sex best friends, and their sexual attitudes and behaviors. These conversations were more frequent between females, and between less religious youth. Sexually active youth discussed most topics more frequently than abstinent youth, although abstinent youth discussed abstinence more frequently. More frequent and comfortable conversations were generally associated with more liberal sexual attitudes, and more positive condom-related attitudes. Differential associations between the specific topics discussed and attitudes about sexuality, HIV, and condoms highlight the importance of examining multiple dimensions of sex-related communication rather than the unidimensional measures typically employed.     

Developmental Differences in Adolescents’ and Young Adults’ Use of Mothers, Fathers, Best Friends, and Romantic Partners to Fulfill Attachment Needs

Adolescents and young adults (three age groups: 12–15, 16–19, and 20–28 years) reported their use of parents, and peers to fulfill attachment functions (proximity-seeking, safe haven, and secure base.) The use of each target figure varied with age and attachment function. Mothers were an important source of security across this age range. They were used as secure base consistently more than fathers or peers for all age groups, and regardless of whether or not participants had romantic partners; but were used less for proximity and safe haven by the two older groups. Best friends were used most and more than others as a safe haven; but were used less by young adults (vs. early adolescents) and by older adolescents with romantic partners. Romantic partners were used most and more than others for proximity; but were used less by early adolescents than by older participants. Fathers were selected less than other targets for all attachment functions. Those with romantic partners turned to them more than to others, and young adults selected their romantic partners as much as friends for safe haven. Those insecurely attached to mother turned to her less and to romantic partners more than did those securely attached. Implications for developmental changes in adolescent attachments are discussed. Professor of Psychology and Applied Human Sciences, Concordia University. Received PhD in social psychology from Ohio State University. Research interests include close interpersonal relationships and adjustment. Received MA in social/developmental psychology from Wilfrid Laurier University. Research interests include attachment and well-being in adolescence Received PhD in developmental psychology from Stanford University. Research interests include parenting, attachment, and adjustment in adolescence Received BA in Psychology (Honors) from Concordia University. Research interests include romantic relationships in adolescence     

Developmental and Cross-Situational Differences in Adolescents' Coping Strategies

In this study, we investigated developmental and cross-situational differences in strategies adolescents use to cope with family, school, and peer stressors. We also examined the relation between adolescents' use of coping strategies and two indices of adjustment (self perceptions of their adjustment as a result of coping with the specific stressor and state anxiety). The sample included 148 seventh graders, 124 ninth graders, and 103 twelfth graders (n = 375). Approach coping increased across the three grade levels, especially in relation to family and peer stressors. Adolescents used more avoidance than approach coping strategies for family stressors, and more approach than avoidance strategies for school and peer stressors. Across stressors, approach coping predicted more favorable outcomes and avoidance coping predicted less favorable outcomes. Coping strategies in response to a specific stressor were more strongly predictive of stressor-specific adjustment than state anxiety, suggesting the need to include both stressor-specific and global measures of adjustment in assessing the relation between coping and adjustment.     

Adolescents' perceptions of their attachment relationships with their mothers,fathers, and friends

This study explored changes in New Zealand adolescents' perceptions of their attachment relationships with their mothers, fathers, and friends. The main findings revealed that from early to late adolescence: Males and females remained stable in their quality of affect toward their mothers. With increasing age, females utilized their mothers for support and proximity more, whereas males utilized their mothers for support and proximity less. With increasing age, males and females rated their quality of affect toward their fathers as lower and utilized their fathers for support and proximity less. Females had a higher quality of affect toward friends than males regardless of age, but both males and females increased their utilization of friends for support and proximity over age. Further analyses revealed that Pacific Island adolescents utilized their mothers less for support and proximity than European/Pakeha adolescents. Adolescents from one-parent families utilized their fathers less for support and proximity and had a lower quality of affect toward him than adolescents from two-parent families. These findings suggested that substantial changes take place in attachment relationships from early to late adolescence and highlighted the need for research to differentiate between the sex of adolescent and sex of parent dyads in order to examine adolescents' affective relationships effectively.This research is based on the first author's doctoral dissertation at the University of Auckland.Received Ph.D. from the University of Auckland. Research interests are in life span developmental psychology and in the parenting of children and adolescents.Received Ph.D. from the Australian National University. Research interests lie within life span developmental psychology and early cognitive development.Received Ph.D. from the University of Canterbury. Her main interests are in life span developmental psychology and the development of low birth weight babies.     

Friends or foes: Gerontological and feminist theory

The purpose of this article is to analyse the current relation between feminist and gerontological concerns. In addition to explaining the interwoven nature of feminist and gerontological theory, problems in the relationships are also discussed.     

Family and Individual Predictors of Late Adolescents' Romantic Relationships

The present study examined parent–adolescent conflict and late adolescents' attachment anxiety and depressive symptoms as predictors of late adolescents' romantic relationships. Questionnaires assessing parent–adolescent conflict resolution behaviors, adolescent–romantic partner conflict resolution behaviors, and adolescent attachment anxiety and depressive symptoms were completed by 256 college students (198 females and 58 males). Using hierarchical regression analyses, statistical models were tested wherein adolescent–romantic partner conflict resolution behaviors were regressed on mother–adolescent and father–adolescent conflict resolution behaviors and adolescents' attachment anxiety and depressive symptoms. All four predictor variables explained significant portions of the variance in adolescent–romantic partner conflict resolution behaviors; however, different predictors were found for females and males. For females, mother–adolescent and father–adolescent conflict resolution strategies and adolescent attachment anxiety were significant predictors. In contrast, father–adolescent conflict resolution behaviors and adolescent depressive symptoms were significant predictors for males. Findings highlight the differential role of familial and individual attributes in female and male adolescents' romantic relationship functioning.     

Friends and Education: Identity Patterns across Domains and Associations with Emotion Dysregulation and Identity Disturbance

Journal of Youth and Adolescence - The task of identity development, which involves distinguishing who one is, and defining and articulating this to others, is a challenging developmental task for...     

The Association Between Early Generative Concern and Caregiving with Friends from Early to Middle Adolescence

Generativity, defined as concern for future generations, is theorized to become a priority in midlife, preceded by a stage in which intimacy is the central issue. Recent research, however, has found evidence of generativity even in adolescence. This longitudinal study explored the associations between caregiving in friendships, closely related to intimacy, and early generative concern in a young adolescent sample. Given the importance of close friendships in adolescence, it was hypothesized that responsive caregiving in early adolescent friendships would predict later generative concern. Approximately 140 adolescents (56 % female, aged 14 at Time 1) completed questionnaires regarding generative concern and responsive caregiving with friends yearly across 2 years. Structural equation modeling revealed that caregiving predicted generative concern 1 year later but generative concern did not predict later caregiving. These results suggest that caregiving in close friendships plays an important role in the development of adolescents’ motivation to contribute to future generations.     

Stability,Change and Individual Differences in Involvement with Friends and Romantic Partners Among Adolescent Females

The initiation of romantic relationships is a normative developmental task among female adolescents. Friendships with other females may change as part of this task. Using structured interviews, this study collected data from 102 white females (ages 17 to 19) about their history of close peer relationships during high school. Trajectories of involvement (time spent) with close peers were examined using individual growth modeling. Females who increased time with romantic partners more rapidly also decreased time with friends more rapidly. Although most spent more time with partners than with friends at some time, the timing of this change and patterns of involvement with close peers varied. One-fourth of females spent more time with partners than with friends early in high school, but spent less time with friends than others did. Another one-half spent more time with partners than with friends later in high school, gradually increasing time with partners and reducing time with friends. Other females never spent more time with partners than with friends, and maintained high involvement with friends and little involvement with partners.     

Adolescents' perceptions of the costs and benefits associated with cigarette smoking: Sex differences and peer influence

This study explored the perceptions of young adolescents of the costs and benefits of cigarette smoking. These perceptions were examined as a function of the sex of the adolescent and peer smoking habits. The sample consisted of 155 White middle class male and female adolescents, aged 12 to 15. The results indicate that endorsement of particular costs and benefits was related to the respondent's sex and whether or not the respondent had friends who smoked. The girls seemed to view smoking as a sign of rebellion or autonomy, while the boys seemed to view smoking cigarettes as a social coping mechanism. The effect of having friends who smoke was always mediated by the sex of the adolescents. Boys who have friends who smoke have attitudes that appear more conducive to smoking than do boys with nonsmoking friends. This relationship did not hold for girls. The implications for smoking education and intervention are discussed.This work was supported in part by the Comprehensive Cancer Center of Metropolitan Detroit as supported by Grant CA - 22453 from the National Cancer Institute, DHHS.     

Social Support from Parents and Friends and Emotional Problems in Adolescence

In a sample of 2918 adolescents aged 12 to 24 years, the relation between parental and friends' social support was studied, specifically with regard to emotional problems. In addition, age and sex differences were examined. Results indicated that parental and friends' support seem to be relatively independent support systems. Although the degree of perceived support changes in the expected direction (with parental support decreasing and friends' support increasing) during early adolescence, parental support remains the best indicator of emotional problems during adolescence. The effect of friends' support appeared to depend slightly on the level of perceived parental support, with the high parental support group showing a slightly positive effect of friends' support, and the low parental support group showing a negative effect of friends' support.