Drilling down into ethics: A thematic review of ethical considerations for the creation and use of 3D printed human remains in crime reconstruction

The existing literature contains some exploration of the ethics concerning human remains in forensic and virtual anthropology. However, previous work has stopped short of interrogating the underlying ethical concepts. The question of how people understand and apply these concepts in practice, and what it means to act ethically, remain underexplored. This thematic review explores the ethical considerations that contribute to the creation and use of 3D printed human remains for forensic purposes. The three main branches of ethical theory are outlined to explore how they may apply to forensic practice. Key themes relating to 3D printing human remains in forensic contexts were explored to better understand the ethics landscape, ethical challenges, and the current guidelines in place. Through this thematic review, nine ethics principles were identified as key principles for guiding best practice: anonymity, autonomy, beneficence, consent, context, justice, non-maleficence, proportionality, and transparency. It is suggested that these principles could be incorporated into adaptable guidelines going forward to support ethical practice. The findings also suggest that holistic ethics cognition training may have value in supporting forensic scientists in ethical decision-making, together with procedural and structural design that may promote best practice and reduce cognitive load.     

科学标准在社会和法庭科学证据中的应用

在当今的司法程序中越来越多地应用科学技术来证明争议事实,但这种应用也存在一些争议和问题。有关证据和证明程序规则的存在．在本质上,并没有同科学证据的应用和采纳在任何方式上存在冲突。相反,如果存在非认知性的程序规则,其结果是这样的规则应该被撤销。除了物理、化学、工程学和遗传学等“解释性科学”得以广泛应用之外,心理学、社会学...     

The Power of Contextual Effects in Forensic Anthropology: A Study of Biasability in the Visual Interpretations of Trauma Analysis on Skeletal Remains

The potential for contextual information to bias assessments in the forensic sciences has been demonstrated, in several forensic disiplines. In this paper, biasability potential within forensic anthropology was examined by analyzing the effects of external manipulations on judgments and decision‐making in visual trauma assessment. Three separate websites were created containing fourteen identical images. Participants were randomly assigned to one website. Each website provided different contextual information, to assess variation of interpretation of the same images between contexts. The results indicated a higher scoring of trauma identification responses for the Mass grave context. Furthermore, a significant biasing effect was detected in the interpretation of four images. Less experienced participants were more likely to indicate presence of trauma. This research demonstrates bias impact in forensic anthropological trauma assessments and highlights the importance of recognizing and limiting cognitive vulnerabilities that forensic anthropologists might bring to the analysis.     

Facial symmetry in robust anthropometrics

Image analysis methods commonly used in forensic anthropology do not have desirable robustness properties, which can be ensured by robust statistical methods. In this paper, the face localization in images is carried out by detecting symmetric areas in the images. Symmetry is measured between two neighboring rectangular areas in the images using a new robust correlation coefficient, which down-weights regions in the face violating the symmetry. Raw images of faces without usual preliminary transformations are considered. The robust correlation coefficient based on the least weighted squares regression yields very promising results also in the localization of such faces, which are not entirely symmetric. Standard methods of statistical machine learning are applied for comparison. The robust correlation analysis can be applicable to other problems of forensic anthropology.     

Haptics in forensics: The possibilities and advantages in using the haptic device for reconstruction approaches in forensic science

Non-invasive documentation methods such as surface scanning and radiological imaging are gaining in importance in the forensic field. These three-dimensional technologies provide digital 3D data, which are processed and handled in the computer. However, the sense of touch gets lost using the virtual approach. The haptic device enables the use of the sense of touch to handle and feel digital 3D data. The multifunctional application of a haptic device for forensic approaches is evaluated and illustrated in three different cases: the representation of bone fractures of the lower extremities, by traffic accidents, in a non-invasive manner; the comparison of bone injuries with the presumed injury-inflicting instrument; and in a gunshot case, the identification of the gun by the muzzle imprint, and the reconstruction of the holding position of the gun.The 3D models of the bones are generated from the Computed Tomography (CT) images. The 3D models of the exterior injuries, the injury-inflicting tools and the bone injuries, where a higher resolution is necessary, are created by the optical surface scan.The haptic device is used in combination with the software FreeForm Modelling Plus™ for touching the surface of the 3D models to feel the minute injuries and the surface of tools, to reposition displaced bone parts and to compare an injury-causing instrument with an injury.The repositioning of 3D models in a reconstruction is easier, faster and more precisely executed by means of using the sense of touch and with the user-friendly movement in the 3D space. For representation purposes, the fracture lines of bones are coloured. This work demonstrates that the haptic device is a suitable and efficient application in forensic science. The haptic device offers a new way in the handling of digital data in the virtual 3D space.     

T. Dale Stewart's perspective on his career as a forensic anthropologist at the Smithsonian

T. D. Stewart (1901-1997) is internationally recognized as an early leader in forensic anthropology. In a series of taped interviews in 1975 and in 1986, Stewart discusses his professional development. The interviews document his early education in Delta, Pennsylvania, his long career at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC and aspects of his many contributions to forensic anthropology. His well-known careful editorial work and exhaustive, problem-oriented research approach may have been influenced by his early training in his hometown bank and his many years of apprenticeship under Ales Hrdlicka (1869-1943). Stewart describes aspects of the difficulties of working for Hrdlicka, yet credits the work ethic established by him as a formative factor in his own prodigious productivity.     

CT技术在法医人类学研究中应用的进展

近年来,将计算机断层扫描(CT)等影像学新技术应用于法医人类学个体识别的研究受到国内外法医人类学家的重视。CT具有清晰快速的成像能力以及强大的后处理功能,无需骨骼前处理就能提供高分辨率模型图像,对法医人类学具有重要的研究和应用价值。本文就CT技术在法医人类学研究中应用的进展进行综述,以期为相关研究和实践提供参考和借鉴。     

Theory and the scientific basis for forensic anthropology

Forensic anthropology has long been criticized for its lack of a strong theoretical and scientific foundation. This paper addresses this problem by examining the role of theory in forensic anthropology at different hierarchical levels (high-level, middle-range, and low-level) and the relevance of various theoretical concepts (taphonomic, agency, behavioral archaeology, nonlinear systems, and methodological theories) to the interpretation of forensic contexts. Application of these theories to a case study involving the search for the WWII Goettge Patrol illustrates the explanatory power these theories offer to the interpretation of forensic events as the end product of an often complex set of environmental constraints and behavioral interactions and choices. It also emphasizes the importance of case studies in theory building and hypothesis testing. A theoretical foundation does indeed currently exist in forensic anthropology; however, a recognition and broader implementation of anthropological (archaeological) theory is warranted and will further define forensic anthropology as a scientific endeavor.     

Pedagogical access and ethical considerations in forensic anthropology and bioarchaeology

Traditional education in biological anthropology relies primarily on hands-on, highly visual experiences. Forensic anthropologists, bioarchaeologists, and osteologists in general should aim to collaborate in developing widespread digital pedagogy suitable for our discipline, increasing digital technologies used for education and training. Considerations and suggested pathways toward a biological anthropology digital pedagogy include accommodating for varying levels of digital fluency, understanding global perspectives and cultural beliefs, equity in accessibility, ethical strategies, prioritization levels of content that should be made publicly available, appropriate platforms and forms of media for disseminating different types of content, and the necessity of multiple modalities. Using three online resources as case studies, this paper focuses on the discussion of pedagogy, access, and ethics surrounding digital osteology. These three digital tools, 3D MMS, MapMorph, and J-Skel, can be used to teach students topics ranging from human variation methods and theory to juvenile age estimation. Developing a pathway forward, we encourage the anthropology community to think critically about the desired outcome of pedagogical tools in order to properly align the framework with the intended pedagogy, level of accessibility, and ethical codes. The ideal model would aim for equitable access to training materials on a global scale. Implementing these practices can foster a more adaptable and encompassing learning experience for students and researchers in biological anthropology who may have dissimilar access to resources.     

Becoming respectable: T. Dale Stewart and the acceptance of forensic anthropology in the academic community

Before World War II, forensic anthropology was of peripheral interest to a few anthropologists willing to assist in investigations by law enforcement agencies. A strong bias that "police work" was unbecoming to the scholarly pursuits of academics persisted into the post-war years. Changes took place as a consequence of T. Dale Stewart's case work in the identification of human remains with the FBI from 1943 to 1969, his directorship of the National Museum of Natural History (Smithsonian Institution) beginning in 1962, and his work with the Armed Forces after 1948. This paper discusses the historic period of transition of attitudes and practices in the contexts of Stewart's contributions and the cases and teaching programs of one of his contemporaries. Theodore D. McCown at the University of California at Berkeley, during the period of 1939 to 1969. The establishment of the Physical Anthropology Section within the American Academy of Forensic Sciences in 1972 and the creation of the T. Dale Stewart award for distinguished service in forensic anthropology advanced those laboratory research programs and medical-legal investigations conducted by present-day forensic anthropologists.     

A Pilot Study Comparing Postmortem and Antemortem CT for the Identification of Unknowns: Could a Forensic Pathologist Do It?

Forensic pathologists are commonly tasked with identifying human remains. Although DNA analysis remains the gold standard in identification, time and cost make it particularly prohibitive. Radiological examination, more specifically analog imaging, is more cost-effective and has been widely used in the medical examiner setting as a means of identification. In the United States, CT imaging is a fairly new imaging modality in the forensic setting, but in more recent years, offices are acquiring CT scans or collaborating with local hospitals to utilize the technology. To broaden the spectrum of potential identifying characteristics, we collected 20 cases with antemortem and postmortem CT images. The results were qualitatively assessed by a forensic pathologist and a nonmedically trained intern, and all cases were correctly identified. This study demonstrates that identification of human remains using visual comparison could be performed with ease by a forensic pathologist with limited CT experience.     

Getting in touch--3D printing in forensic imaging

With the increasing use of medical imaging in forensics, as well as the technological advances in rapid prototyping, we suggest combining these techniques to generate displays of forensic findings. We used computed tomography (CT), CT angiography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and surface scanning with photogrammetry in conjunction with segmentation techniques to generate 3D polygon meshes. Based on these data sets, a 3D printer created colored models of the anatomical structures. Using this technique, we could create models of bone fractures, vessels, cardiac infarctions, ruptured organs as well as bitemark wounds. The final models are anatomically accurate, fully colored representations of bones, vessels and soft tissue, and they demonstrate radiologically visible pathologies. The models are more easily understood by laypersons than volume rendering or 2D reconstructions. Therefore, they are suitable for presentations in courtrooms and for educational purposes.     

Evaluating expertise in forensic anthropology

The medicolegal system relies on the ability of experts and non-experts alike to make judgments about expertise and use those judgments to reach consequential decisions. Given the lack of standard criteria, mandatory certification, or licensure for establishing expertise required to practice forensic anthropology and testify as an expert witness, we sought to understand how individuals assess and identify expertise in forensic anthropology by using a social science tool called the Imitation Game. This tool assesses immersion in a specific area of study via discourse, with the premise that some individuals lacking expertise themselves imitate or attempt to pass as experts. For this project we recruited volunteers with varying expertise in forensic anthropology to participate in interviews which asked questions about the practice and structure of the discipline. Those interviews were transcribed, anonymized, and evaluated by other recruited individuals with varying expertise in forensic anthropology. Results found that judges who were experts in forensic anthropology performed better than non-expert judges in determining who was not an expert in forensic anthropology based on their anonymized responses; however, nearly half of the non-experts were still able to pass as experts in forensic anthropology. The difficulties in assessing expertise based on discourse interactions demonstrates the value and need for well-defined credentials and mandatory certification to practice forensic anthropology. This study demonstrates that accurately identifying expertise in forensic anthropology may be challenging for both experts and non-experts, especially when relying solely on interactional expertise rather than formal assessments of competency which directly elucidate contributory expertise.     

Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) for the Documentation of Saw Mark Characteristics

Photography is widely accepted as a means of forensic case documentation and evaluation. In cases of criminal dismemberment digital microscopy is commonly used to assess marks left on the bone. Reflectance transformation imaging (RTI) is a computational photography technique which documents and enhances the three-dimensional (3D) reflectance properties of the surface of an object. RTI has primarily been used in the cultural heritage sector but has recently transitioned into forensic science. This study examines the use of RTI for the documentation and presentation of cut surface characteristics on fully sectioned long bones. Juvenile pig radii were bisected using three different handsaws, chosen as handsaws are the most common implement used in criminal dismemberments. The resulting 42 cut surfaces were then documented with a digital microscope and RTI. Four rendering modes were applied to the default RTI image, with diffuse gain being the most beneficial to accentuate cut surface features. Although great care must be taken when obtaining the photographic sequences necessary for detailed RTI analysis, RTI is relatively inexpensive, expeditious, and easy to use, and creates highly detailed, virtually interactive images. RTI may not replace microscopic methods of saw mark analysis, however could prove useful for the documentation, image sharing, and presentation of forensic evidence.     

A Preliminary Investigation into the Accuracy of 3D Modeling and 3D Printing in Forensic Anthropology Evidence Reconstruction,

There is currently no published empirical evidence‐base demonstrating 3D printing to be an accurate and reliable tool in forensic anthropology, despite 3D printed replicas being exhibited as demonstrative evidence in court. In this study, human bones (n = 3) scanned using computed tomography were reconstructed as virtual 3D models (n = 6), and 3D printed using six commercially available printers, with osteometric data recorded at each stage. Virtual models and 3D prints were on average accurate to the source bones, with mean differences from ?0.4 to 1.2 mm (?0.4% to 12.0%). Interobserver differences ranged from ?5.1 to 0.7 mm (?5.3% to 0.7%). Reconstruction and modeling parameters influenced accuracy, and prints produced using selective laser sintering (SLS) were most consistently accurate. This preliminary investigation into virtual modeling and 3D printer capability provides a novel insight into the accuracy of 3D printing osteological samples and begins to establish an evidence‐base for validating 3D printed bones as demonstrative evidence.     

CT在法医人类学中的应用与展望

计算机X线断层摄影术具有分辨率高、成像清晰、可进行三维重建等优点,对骨骼和牙齿的成像效果较好。近十年来,国外有学者将其用于推断年龄和身高,判定种族和性别,在相关文献中介绍了有关的研究方法和数据,并对这些方法和数据在法医人类学个体识别中的应用价值进行了客观的评估。笔者对近几年发表的部分文献进行综述,希望能够为法医人类学科研和办案提供新的方法和思路。     

A Comparison of Coronary Artery Stenosis Estimates Made by Forensic Pathologists and Medical Students

Previous studies suggest cardiovascular pathologists are less accurate than noncardiovascular pathologists (e.g., clinical pathologists) in estimating the degree of coronary artery stenosis. To further investigate the effect of training on accurate estimation of coronary artery stenosis, we designed a study to compare the accuracy of estimates made by forensic pathologists versus medical students. Six forensic pathologists and twelve medical students each independently examined 24 images of coronary artery cross sections and gave an estimate of the degree of stenosis. When comparing all 24 images, the forensic pathologists had a median difference between the estimated percentage of stenosis and actual percentage of stenosis of −12.380 and the medical students had a median difference of −16.50 (p-value of 0.08542). In estimating the percentage of stenosis, training in forensic pathology does not guarantee significantly improved accuracy compared with medical students. Our study showed no consistent statistically significant difference between estimates given by forensic pathologists and by medical students.     

Radiographic human identification using bones of the hand: a validation study

The 1993 Supreme Court case Daubert v. Merrell-Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. underscores the importance of validating forensic science techniques. This research examines the validity of using posterior-anterior radiographs of the hand to make positive identifications of unknown human remains. Furthermore, this study was constructed to satisfy the requirements of Daubert's guidelines of scientific validity by establishing a standard methodology for hand radiograph analysis, testing the technique, and noting rates of error. This validation study required twelve participant examiners from the forensic science community, working independently, to attempt to match 10 simulated postmortem radiographs of skeletonized hands to 40 simulated antemortem radiographs of fleshed cadaver hands. The overall accuracy rate of the twelve examiners was 95%, while their collective sensitivity and specificity were 95% and 92%, respectively. However, the accuracy of each examiner was related to the amount of radiological training and experience of the observer. Six Ph.D. forensic anthropologists and four experienced forensic anthropology graduate students correctly identified all the matches. Participant examiners noted bone morphology, trabecular patterns of the proximal and middle phalanges, and distinctive radiopaque and radiolucent features as the anatomical features that aided the identification process. The hand can be an important skeletal element for radiographic positive identification because it contains 27 individual bones for comparative analysis.     

Teaching post-mortem external examination in undergraduate medical education--the formal and the informal curriculum

In undergraduate medical education, the training of post-mortem external examination on dead bodies might evoke strong emotional reactions in medical students that could counteract the intended learning goals. We evaluated student perception of a forensic medicine course, their perceived learning outcome (via self-assessment) and possible tutor-dependent influences on the overall evaluation of the course by a questionnaire-based survey among 150 medical students in Hamburg, Germany. The majority of students identified post-mortem external examination as an important learning objective in undergraduate medical education and did not feel that the dignity of the deceased was offended by the course procedures. After the course, more than 70% of the students felt able to perform an external examination and to fill in a death certificate. Respectful behavior of course tutors towards the deceased entailed better overall course ratings by students (p<0.001). Our findings highlight the importance of factors such as clearly defined learning goals and course standardization (formal curriculum) as well as tutor behavior (informal curriculum) in undergraduate education in forensic medicine. Furthermore, we suggest embedding teaching in forensic medicine in longitudinal curricula on death and dying and on the health consequences of interpersonal violence.     

T. Dale Stewart: remembrances of a scholar and colleague

T. Dale Stewart's contributions had a considerable influence on the development and early evolution of the field of forensic anthropology. This composition provides a perception of Stewart from the viewpoint of an advanced graduate student and then a young colleague. It explains, in part, the quiet leadership and assistance that Stewart provided at various professional and familiar levels to one individual and is indicative of the broad effect that Stewart had on generations of students and professionals in anthropology, osteology and forensic anthropology.