Varieties of population mobility in relation to development in China

China, in its efforts to effect economic modernization, has come to recognize the need for labor mobility to promote the development of small towns, to develop frontier agriculture, and to provide a tertiary sector in the cities and towns. Of China's 1 billion people (3rd census, 1982), 206 million or 20% of the population lived in 236 cities and 2664 towns. 50% of the urban dwellers were concentrated in the 3 metropolises of Shanghai, Beijing, and Tianjin. On the other hand 30% lived in the 2664 towns, which China wishes to develop. In the past large numbers of people have migrated to the large cities because there they were assured the life-long security of employment in state-owned industries -- the "iron rice bowl." However, China's present policy is to limit the size of big cities, develop medium-sized cities (between 200,000 and 500,000 people), and encourage the growth of small cities. China's 7th Five-Year Plan (1986-1990) calls for a massive movement of the agricultural labor force, not to the cities, but to the towns. To control population movement China instituted the Household Registration System in accordance with which a household must obtain permission to move permanently beyond the local area. Migration from the populous East Coast areas to the underdeveloped Northwest and to the rural impoverished areas of Gansu, Ningxia, and Qinghai is encouraged. But controlled migration has become more difficult since the decentralization which has accompanied the new economic policies, and the urban population has grown except for the 3 major cities. Moreover, as a result of the new "economic responsibility system" introduced in 1979, many surplus agricultural workers have been absorbed into nonagricultural activities in villages and townships. By the end of 1985, 67 million workers had moved from agriculture to industries, and peasants may now be granted temporary residence permits in towns. The total number of towns increased to 7280 by 1985; however, the new towns are concentrated in the more productive agricultural areas, which can support them. In addition to these more or less permanent migrants, large numbers of temporary migrants have come to the cities as representatives of local businesses, as construction workers, to operate urban outlets for agricultural and industrial products, to provide various services including domestic service, and as itinerant workers. 1986 statistics indicated that 3.21 million people were living as temporary residents of China's top 10 cities. The new economic policy has encouraged the resurgence of private plots and free markets and hence has stimulated the increased movement of peasants to rural markets and to free markets in cities.     

Economic development and population

Conclusion Neo-Malthusian analysis that high and increasing population density hinders economic development and results in poverty has been demonstrated to be false. The two major structural variables negatively associated with rate of population increase are wealth and socialism, and the major determinants of economic growth are level of economic development and economic organization. If our analysis is correct the various campaigns supported by AID, the major U.S. foundations and other groups to discourage population growth in Third World countries in order to increase their rate of economic growth are misguided. Every baby born is not only a new mouth to feed, but also within a few years two more hands to work. There are great potentialities for economic growth in the Third World that await only the proper economic organization to be realized. That is, if the two hands are used efficiently, they will more than feed themselves. Attempts to reduce the birth rate by propaganda and making contraceptives readily available, ignore the structural causes of high fertility and so are not likely to succeed in reducing the birth rate. Our data suggest that only when the structural causes of high fertility—the poverty and economic insecurity associated with capitalism—are removed is the birth rate likely to fall significantly.     

The relation between rate of growth and level of development

The paper tests the hypothesis that countries pass through three successive phases of development: an initial phase of stationary or slow growth; a phase when the growth rate is increasing (accelerating growth), and finally, a phase of decreasing (decelerating) growth. Since the regressions turn out to be significant at the 0.1 per cent level, it may be taken that the hypothesis is confirmed. An explanation is offered and deviant cases are discussed. One of the consequences of the established regularity is that the gap is widening between the least developed and other countries, but the countries at the intermediate level of development are catching up. Thus the usual twofold classification of countries will have to be replaced by a threefold one: less developed, developing and developed countries.     

From population control to 'reproductive rights': Ideological influences in population policy

This paper is a review of the interdisciplinary literature examining ideological influences which have helped to shape population control policy in recent decades. A powerful critique of what has become a top-down, ethnocentric approach towards a narrowly focused policy has emerged both from scholars within the Third World itself and from those in the more developed regions. Concerns with issues such as outside intervention in national sovereignty, ethical aspects associated with the implementation of fertility control programmes, the exclusion of Third World scholars from research programmes within their own countries, and the unwillingness of programmes to consider complex social and cultural dimensions of high fertility, are among those which this literature has raised. The role of professional demographers, as part of the population establishment network within the USA, in providing respectable justification for questionable policy intervention, is also examined.     

Transportation infrastructure and regional economic development in China

This study examines the trend of transportation investment and analyzes the effect of transportation investment on regional economic development in China. Results from cross-section analysis indicate that those provinces that have invested more in transportation infrastructure tend to have greater output.     

中国寻求平衡发展

保持传统思想的中国 当我阔别25年后重返中国时,我的第一感觉就像到了另外一个中国.这里不再必须进行"无产阶级斗争",也没有"文化大革命"时期横行肆虐的无政府主义,或四人帮时期没完没了的"阶级斗争".在当今中国,对"资产阶级生活方式"表示好感和向往不再会受到惩罚,而是允许的和可以接受的.     

Technical training,sponsored mobility,and functional differentiation: Elite formation in China in the reform era

Elite formation in state socialism is a key issue in both comparative mobility research and political sociology. Several perspectives have been proposed to explain the relative role of political loyalty and education in political mobility: a dual career path model, a party-sponsored mobility hypothesis, and a technocracy thesis. I propose an alternative approach, emphasizing the role of functional differentiation and its effect on elite recruitment in China. Using a data set on top Chinese leaders (n = 1588), I find that effects of political loyalty and technical training on elite recruitment are patterned by institutional arrangements. Data analysis supports my explanation of elite selection in China.     

From population control to "reproductive rights": ideological influences in population policy

The author examines some of the ideological influences which have shaped population control policy in recent decades and considers the growing critique of what is now regarded as a narrowly focused policy, one which is based upon a simplistic definition and analysis of population growth in the less developed world. Focus is given to the important role of professional demographers in the US, who tailored their theories to provide a respectable justification for questionable policy intervention. The emergence of a population establishment in the US, based upon interconnected networks of foundations, private population organizations, and university population centers is outlined. These institutions provide a willing conduit for US government funding through the US Agency for International Development. Relevant interdisciplinary literature has raised concerns over issues such as the outside intervention in national sovereignty, ethical aspects associated with the implementation of fertility control programs, the exclusion of Third World scholars from research programs conducted in their own countries, and the unwillingness of programs to consider complex social and cultural dimensions of high fertility.     

Issues in population pressure,land resettlement,and development: The case of Nepal

This analysis considers the question of whether resettlement schemes really relieve population pressure or help achieve a better regional balance between population and resource distribution in a manner consistent with Nepal's national objective of agricultural growth with social justice. The 1st part of the analysis discusses population pressure, followed by the conceptualization of ecodemographic relations and sociodemographic relations. The 2nd part of the analysis considers Nepal's agrarian economy along with a case-study examination of its contemporary resettlement project in Chitwan district. Finally, information is presented from a field survey conducted in Chitwan in 1979, which support the assertions that: the sociodemographic relations -- not population pressure as such -- are the primary roots of agrarian development problems in a country like Nepal; and resettlement schemes, when implemented without due consideration of the pervasive sociodemographic relations, are a deficient technical fix to imbalances in ecodemographic relations. Nepal provides a typical example of ecodemographic imbalances in the regional distribution of population and resources. Although the Hill and Mountain regions make up almost 60% of Nepal's total population, they share less than 30% of the total land under cultivation. The Tarai region, which is the northern extension of the Gangetic Plain in India, occupies over 70% of the cultivated land and supports only slightly over 40% of the population. As the case study illustrates, development strategies such as land resettlement are invariably formulated and implemented as a technical solution within the framework of ecodemographic relations. Little attention is directed to addressing the social dimension of these programs, i.e., the structual problems directly associated with the existing sociodemographic relations. Development, or land resettlement in the present case, is not simply a technical issue concerned with land reclamation and its management. It is also a social issue, because the sociodemographic relations determine significantly the direction (or directions) that resettlement programs take. When development policies make little effort to tackle the underlying forces of these relations, resettlement schemes result in the reconstitution of class divisions and disparity in the ownership of resources in newly resettled areas.     

The birth and development of the language of global development in light of trends in global population,international politics,economics and globalisation

The 1940s saw an intensification of worldwide interest in the problems of development and underdevelopment. One consequence of this was a rapid evolution of the language of global development. The reconstruction of its genesis is most commonly attempted through the analysis of literature on the subject and accounts by those who took part in or observed the debates of the time concerning the world’s development and structure. This article proposes a different approach which locates important events in the evolution of the modern language of global development on timelines tracing populational, political, socio-economic and civilisational processes.     

地区差距的存在和扩大与民族关系--社会主义初级阶段民族矛盾的经济原因

我国地区之间差距的扩大有一定积极作用,它使有条件的东部地区先发展起来,把有限的财力和物力集中使用,发挥了地区比较优势,在较短时间内增大了全国的经济总量和综合国力;沿海地区先发展起来,不仅积累了大量经济财富,而且创造了地区工业化的丰富经验,从而对内地广大地区产生一种示范、激励和传导效应;经济发展的地区落差,促成了生产要素的空间流动,使全国资源配置不断优化.但也应当看到,东西部地区特别是汉族地区与少数民族地区在经济发展上差距的存在和扩大,是影响我国民族关系的一个重要不利因素.     

Incarcerated adolescents' distress and suicidality in relation to parental bonding styles

This study examines the relationships between the bonding style of an incarcerated adolescent with parents and his/her current feelings of self-esteem, hopelessness, and suicidal thoughts and attempts. It also investigates differences between bonding to mother and bonding to father. Some 296 incarcerated adolescents were interviewed using the Parental Bonding Instrument. Significant relationships were found between youths' self-esteem, hoplessness, and suicidal behavior and their bonding style. Youths whose parent(s) had a parental bonding style of affectionless control reported the greatest distress, and youths whose parent(s) had an optimal bonding style reported the least distress. Differences were found between bonding styles with the mother and with the father. Attachment theory may be useful in targeting incarcerated youths who have affectionless control bonding with parent(s) for special interventions since these youths are most at risk for psychosocial problems.     

刑事污点取消在中国的现状及发展构想

刑事污点取消已经为世界上不少国家实行的情况下,中国的相关法律规定迟迟没有现身。本文分析了刑事污点取消的概念,及刑事污点在中国影响状况。并对在我国设立刑事污点取消制度提出了三个条件:一般条件,限制条件和程序条件。     

和平发展:中国必由之路

四分之一个世纪改革开放的辉煌历程,无可置疑地向全世界昭示:中国选择的是一条和平发展道路。“和平发展”,言之凿凿,名副其实。这就是:在安全、稳定的条件下加速社会经济变革与发展,为此要营造一个良好的周边环境与国际环境;本着崇高的以人为本的和平目的,造福于中华民族,同时造福于全人类;采取和平的方式并经过和平的途径,奔向全面建成小康社会的彼岸;维护世界和平与稳定,促进人类共同繁荣与进步,亦即我国几代领导人倡导的“中国应当对于人类有较大的贡献”。选择和平发展道路,乃是基于中国特色社会主义推进现代化建设的内在要求,基于饱经忧患的中国讲     

Luring,learning, and lobbying: The limits to capital mobility in the Dominican Republic

While Third World governments are advised and expected to establish their export processing zones (EPZs) near low-cost labor markets and modern transportation centers, the Dominican Republic’s oldest and most successful zones are located in the country’s relatively remote, high-cost interior. In this article I use qualitative and quantitative data: first, to explain the seemingly irrational EPZ location decision; second, to account for the seemingly paradoxical success of the country’s relatively high-cost secondary city EPZs; and third, to explore the puzzle’s implications for debates on industrial location, globalization, and the political economy of development policy. Andrew Schrank is an assistant professor of sociology at Yale University. He is currently completing a book on export diversification in the Dominican Republic. He is also collaborating on projects on the software industry in Mexico and a study of intellectual property rights in cross-national perspective. I would like to thank Stephen Bunker, Lawrence King, Marcus Kurtz, Denis O’Hearn, Kenneth Shadlen, members of the University of Chicago’s “Organizations and State-Building” workshop, participants in the Social Science Research Council’s “Rethinking Social Science Research on the Developing World” conference, and SCID’s reviewers for helpful comments. The research was undertaken with the assistance of the Institute of International Education.