自由:一个尚未结束的美国故事--读埃里克·方纳的《美国自由的故事》

自从独立时期帕特里克·亨利呼出"不自由,毋宁死"的口号,"自由"就成了美国的灵魂.纵观美国历史上的国会辩论、总统演说、法院判例、外交文件、各种社会运动和改革的主张、乃至当今反政府的白人民兵组织的网页,"自由"一词无处不在.即便在日常生活中,"自由"也与美国人形影不离:中小学生每日必宣誓效忠"自由",体育比赛前观众必高唱国歌赞颂"自由之疆",大小美元硬币上均刻有"自由"(liberty),以"自由"为名的地名遍布全国.①至少从表面上来看,美国人对"自由"的钟爱已经达到了一种近似于偏执的程度.然而,当"自由"一词无所不能、无所不为、无人不用的时候,它也就失去了公认的定义,变成了一个令人困惑的概念.在众多的自由语言中,到底什么是真正的美国自由,也因而成为一个极负挑战意味的问题.正因为如此,埃里克·方纳(Eric Foner)的近作《美国自由的故事》(以下简称《自由故事》)便具有了格外重要的意义.     

詹姆斯·威尔逊与美国宪法

詹姆斯·威尔逊是美国独立、制宪时期的著名政治家、法律家,曾担任大陆会议代表,签署过《独立宣言》,并参与了费城制宪,对制定1787年宪法贡献颇大。他还领导了宾夕法尼亚州批准新宪法的斗争,促使宪法顺利通过。宪法生效后,他又出任最高法院大法官,担任费城学院法学教授,解释和传授新宪法。威尔逊在苏格兰长大,深受苏格兰启蒙思想影响。从他对宪法的理解可以看出,苏格兰启蒙思想也是美国宪法的重要思想渊源。     

18世纪虔敬主义和理性主义对美国思想形成的影响

本文的任务是说明美国人心灵深处的一个令人迷惑的矛盾 :它使美国人在显示出强烈的宗教色彩的同时 ,也表现得非常世俗。人们常常注意到 :一方面 ,美国显然处于全球现代化领头羊的位置 ;另一方面 ,它在宗教上依然相当传统 ,表示信仰上帝和承担某一宗教义务的民众在人口中所占比例均高于其他任何一个西方工业化国家。这一现象在现任美国总统身上更加清晰可见 :一方面 ,他似乎是美国自基辛格以来实力政治 (realpolitik)的最露骨和最不含糊的倡导者 ;另一方面 ,他的讲话充满了个人深深的宗教信念 ,并隐晦地提及像是中世纪而非现代的巨大善恶势力…     

美国《1998年国际宗教自由法》及对中美关系的影响评析

<1998年国际宗教自由法>(以下简称IRFA)是由美国保守派推动制订的一部具有域外效力的美国国内法.由于该法所包含的双重标准以及该法在推行过程中必然会产生的诸多问题,该法实施以来"产生"的域外效力十分有限,未对中美关系造成直接影响.但在美国社会不断保守化的背景下,IRFA对中美关系的间接和负面影响不容小视.针对美国国务院每年发布的<国际宗教自由年度报告>中对中国宗教自由状况的歪曲,中国政府予以外交上的坚决谴责是必须的,但从根本上说,在宗教领域奉行接触政策,勿视美国为敌,怀柔美国应是当前我国韬光养晦外交的较佳选择.     

Oakeshott, Freedom and Republicanism

It is contended that Michael Oakeshott resists classification in terms of conventional labels of conservative, liberal, right or left, and that it is difficult to incorporate him in discussions of modern liberal theory because his concerns are not with human rights, distributive justice or multiculturalism. It is with reference to the classical republicanism of Rome that Oakeshott's distinctive contribution to political philosophy is illuminated because of his emphasis upon authority, the rule of law and freedom as non-domination. These are the very features that Oakeshott highlights in his lectures on the 'Political Experience' and 'Political Thought' of the Romans. Oakeshott values the distinction that the Romans, but not the Greeks, made between public and private, but unlike later republicans he does not associate the public sphere exclusively with political participation and civic virtues. One may contribute just as significantly to the public concern by being a music-hall entertainer. Oakeshott is clearly differentiated from modern instrumental republicans who in his view would be rationalists obsessed with institutional design and with viewing the civil condition as an enterprise association.     

The Seed of Freedom: Regional Security and the Colombo Plan

Established in 1950, the Colombo Plan was a comprehensive program of foreign aid provided to South East Asian nations. In this article I argue that the Colombo Plan had a much broader political and cultural agenda, and cannot be understood from a humanitarian perspective alone. By exploring some of the cultural, ideological and political underpinnings of the scheme I illustrate that, as part of a comprehensive foreign policy, it is best understood as being motivated by international security priorities and the need to ally domestic cultural concerns. Although the Colombo Plan was inherently defensive, it also proved to be something of a progressive force which prepared the ground for a much closer relationship with (and within) the Southeast Asian region.     

Freedom of Expression in South Korea

South Korea is widely considered a consolidated democracy, but there is growing evidence that freedom of expression in South Korea has lagged behind that of comparable Asian countries and that it has deteriorated since 2008. Freedom House downgraded South Korea’s “freedom of the press” status from “free” to “partly free” in 2010 and other international reports also raised concerns on the status of freedom of expression in the country. We identify five problems that have contributed to the deterioration in South Korea’s rankings with respect to civil liberties: abuse of criminal defamation, the rules governing election campaigns, national security limitations on free speech, restrictions related to the internet and partisan use of state power to control the media. We close by considering possible explanations of the phenomenon, ranging from more distant cultural factors and the influence of the Japanese legal systems through the enduring impact of the Cold War. However, the main problems appear political. Governments on both the political right and left have placed limits on freedom of expression in order to contain political opposition, and constitutional, legal and political checks have proven insufficient to stop them.     

美国亚太联盟转型:在中美权力与信任之间

亚太联盟是美国亚太战略的重要支柱,推动联盟的调整与转型是美国亚太战略实施的重要途径。近年来,美国亚太联盟转型明显,不仅表现为联盟区域扩大、联盟利益拓展,还出现了联盟结构调整与联盟互动增强等趋势。联盟的内在变革、亚太地区安全环境的变化、中国崛起的地区效应等因素被认为是影响美国亚太联盟转型的重要动力,但其内在机制并不明晰。相对而言,将中美关系作为推动美国亚太联盟转型的主要动力更具说服力。具体而言,受中美关系中的权力差距与信任水平影响,美国对华战略在遏制与接触中呈现不同态势,美国的亚太联盟因此具有强弱变化。对华战略是美国亚太战略的核心,为了管控中国的崛起,美国借助其亚太盟友共同向中国施压。不过,冷战遗留的各自为战的双边联盟很难适应美国当前的亚太战略和对华战略的需要,为此,美国需要推动其亚太联盟转型。受美国对华战略的遏制与接触强弱程度变化影响,未来美国亚太联盟将呈现北约化、岛链化、雁阵化和赫尔辛基化四大趋势,这将对中美关系和亚太地区安全产生重要影响。     

The Limits of Civil Society in Democratic Indonesia: Media Freedom and Religious Intolerance

Abstract

Indonesian democracy has been challenged by rising religious intolerance and discriminatory attitudes in civil society since the mid-2000s, despite expanded freedom in many areas including the media. Why has Indonesian civil society been put on the defensive by radical and conservative Islamic elements in the context of democratic consolidation? What role has expanded freedoms and a flourishing of new media and information technologies played? This article argues that two factors have contributed to the rising influence of religious hardliners/radicals and increasing religious intolerance. The first is hardliner access not only to new media but, more importantly, to traditional means and institutions for religious and political mobilisation, including state apparatus, to cultivate antagonistic sentiments and attitudes against what they consider the enemies of Islam within the Muslim communities while disseminating narrow and dogmatic interpretations of Islam. The other is the rise of conservative Muslim politicians within the state who are ready and eager to embrace new media and communication technologies while using the state office and prerogatives to advance conservative religious visions and agendas. In order to assess how those conservative politicians exploit their ministerial prerogatives and state patronage to curtail civil society, particularly the freedom of expression and religion, this article examines two prominent and controversial Muslim politicians: Tifatul Sembiring from the Islamist Prosperous Justice Party and Suryadharma Ali from the United Development Party.     

关于国际合作的理论:概述与思考

本文阐述了新现实主义、新自由主义等主要国际关系理论对于国际合作命题的观点 ,并提出了一些较为深入的问题。本文以为 ,新现实主义在国际合作方面的论述较为粗糙 ,有必要从结构与合作的关系进行进一步的研究 ;而国际制度理论中 ,国际制度本身的研究也有待充实。     

Drones over Pakistan: Secrecy,Ethics, and Counterinsurgency

Abstract

The US government appears to be using drones to launch air strikes inside Pakistan. This article details uncertainties regarding the ethical soundness of these strikes and highlights the consequent need for greater official transparency. Available evidence is assessed in the light of traditional ethical requirements that the use of force is beneficial to a legitimate military objective, that it discriminates between combatants and noncombatants, and that it generates harm that is proportional to the expected military benefit. The murky picture that emerges is an inadequate foundation for determining whether US drone strikes in Pakistan constitute a just or an unjust use of force. Arguably, however, the very persistence of doubt on this point undermines international norms on the use of force and the reputation of the United States as a champion thereof. The US government should therefore either refrain from drone strikes or explain publicly how they are beneficial, discriminate, and proportionate.