中美战略竞争:日本的认知与回应

随着中美实力差距日益缩小,竞争逐渐成为中美关系的主要方面.作为中美关系中的第三方,日本对中美在整体和具体领域层面的竞争有着基于自身视角的认知.对于中美的整体性竞争,日本认为其在态势上是长时期、大范围和多领域的,其根源是秩序主导权之争;就影响而言,对日本有利有弊.对于中美在具体领域的竞争,日本认为其主要集中在地缘战略和经济领域,在中国香港问题和新冠肺炎疫情等问题上也有体现.基于这种认知,日本对中美竞争的回应是坚持和巩固日美同盟,在此基础上与中国建立稳定关系,同时积极拓展"第三空间"外交,灵活采用多种形式实现其维护国家利益的目标.     

大国关系及美国大选对全球局势的影响:俄罗斯智库与媒体看法

俄罗斯智库与媒体肯定当前世界秩序处于重大变革时期,特朗普外交政策以及新冠肺炎疫情都给世界带来了巨大改变,同时俄罗斯自身还面临着经济社会发展和周边国家关系等问题,需要以“新思维”来看待和解决。不过,俄罗斯官方不完全认可“新冷战”说法。俄罗斯智库与媒体看到,至少在中短期内,中美矛盾将是世界主要矛盾,俄罗斯可以利用中美竞争谋求发展。如果面临两极格局必须做出选择,对俄罗斯而言更优选择是与中国结盟。从美国民主党对俄罗斯的传统政策以及拜登对普京及俄罗斯的态度看,美国大选结果对俄罗斯不是很有利,但无论特朗普当选还是拜登当选,美国外交政策的总体方向都不会有原则性改变。对于世界格局,俄罗斯智库判断有多种发展趋向,俄力主多极世界,并将努力推动这一局面的形成。     

中美竞争背景下日本的政策选择论析CSSCI

日本的战略环境在很大程度上是由中美两大因素共同塑造的。中美战略竞争对日本产生了重大影响。基于化风险为机遇,进而实现利益最大化的目标,日本采取三方面的政策举措:补齐军事力量的短板,推进联盟安全体系的多元化;实施经济安保战略,重组供应链和确保技术优势;推行体现日本价值观的制度战略,谋求国际规则制定的主导权,以便乘机达成引导国际秩序重塑的方向,成为名副其实的一流大国的夙愿,表现出浓重的机会主义和实用主义色彩。但对日美联盟战略基轴地位的顽固坚守和对中美不对称依赖脆弱性结构的存在,决定了日本无法从根本上平衡自主与追随、依赖与"脱钩"、改革与"辅成"的三重矛盾,要想利用中美战略竞争提供的"空间"来实现上述政策目标并不容易。     

中美新型大国关系中的国际秩序博弈

随着中美关系由普通大国与超级大国的关系转变为崛起大国与守成大国的关系,双边关系中竞争的一面在上升。与之相应,国际秩序已经成了两国博弈的重要领域。国际秩序问题在中美两国的国际战略中都占有重要位置,然而,两国的国际秩序观和变革国际秩序的诉求又存在着很大差异,这就决定两国在国际秩序变革上虽然有合作,但竞争也非常激烈。中美国际秩序竞争的核心内容是领导权问题,而领导权之争的本质是两国意识形态竞争,这种竞争目前表现为"两个秩序"之争,即美国主导的现行国际秩序与中国共产党领导的中国国内秩序之争。意识形态之争是中美关系中的重要结构性矛盾,对两国战略关系走向发挥着重大影响。破解中美秩序困境的根本出路在于构建新型大国关系。中美两国都需要用合作主义来指导双边关系发展,通过合作来管控在国际秩序和意识形态上的分歧,确保两国不冲突不对抗。     

美日加强防务合作的动力和进展

2017年以后,美日两国都开始表达对现有国际秩序的担忧,两国对国际秩序问题的认知基本一致,都认为提高两国防务合作,加强同盟威慑力,是维护美国主导的国际秩序的必要举措。在这种战略共识的支配下,2017年以来,美国和日本的防务合作有了更多的发展,主要表现在提升协作能力、提高进攻能力、强化联合反导能力等三个方面。     

助推实力与地位：大战略视角下法国“印太战略”再定位

自美国领导的“自由主义国际秩序”转型以来,法国逐步确立基于战略自主的“平衡大国”大战略目标。在地缘政治压力下,法国希望通过国家实力建设和国际地位伸张两种战略手段实现该目标。尽管“印太地区”位处法国地缘战略的“边缘地带”,却是集法国海外领土、全球经济引擎、中美战略博弈和地区秩序尚未定型的“元地区”为一身的关键场域。在基于战略自主的“平衡大国”大战略目标指引下,法国“印太战略”显露出国家实力建设和国际地位伸张双重逻辑：一是围绕“战略自主”提升国家实力,通过维持海外领土军事部署、赋能经济活力和保障供应链安全,弥补法国在大国战略竞争中谋求“战略自主”时面临的物质性实力短板,并为法国战时经济转型提供韧性保障。二是聚焦“全球性平衡大国”伸张国际地位,表现为在地区稳定中发挥平衡性力量,呼吁回归“真正的多边主义”,以此强化国际社会对法国全球性大国地位的集体认知和承认。     

国际秩序变革与日欧战略接近

百年变局之下,国际秩序急剧变革。权力政治回归,国际秩序动摇,中美博弈加剧,地缘政治因素成为日本制定对外战略的重要考量。为在秩序变革期充当主动角色,维护和拓展战略利益,影响甚至主导国际秩序重塑,日欧开始从全球角度定位双边关系,积极充实战略伙伴关系内涵,加快推进经济、安全和战略等全方位合作,日欧关系由此进入备受关注的"蜜月期"。双方在战略接近过程中,在确保现实利益基础上,注重维护所谓"基于规则的国际秩序",强调价值观外交。在对华谋利的同时,欲以规则来规范其国际行为;同时规避美国单边主义风险,提升对美战略合作关系。从双方战略接近态势看,日欧合作全方位展开,呈现出战略性借重之态,显露出积极塑造新秩序的"战略雄心"。而双方战略接近能走多远,其雄心能在多大程度上实现,仍受制于多重现实因素。中国应高度重视日欧战略接近的对华影响,从理论与实践上进行相关知识储备与政策应对。     

国际秩序与中美战略竞争

当今国际格局的最显著变化,就是新兴市场国家和发展中国家的群体性崛起以及中国与世界主要国家间力量对比的变化。就中美当前的实力地位和国际影响力而言,中美战略竞争中短期内还难以决定性地改变当前的国际秩序。中国即便对美国的贸易霸凌主义和在亚太地区的霸权主义军事及安全行动采取斗争的回应方式,也并不意味着两国无法合作、或中美关系已进入国际秩序变革的主导权之争。中美战略竞争的同时,经贸往来和必要的合作仍会发展。中美战略竞争会影响权力、观念和行为方式的调整变化,其走势将在相当程度上影响国际秩序的稳定和变革。但未来国际秩序的变革并非只取决于中美,世界主要国家间的互动关系和战略选择,将决定性地影响中美战略竞争的走势和未来国际秩序的演变进程。     

论21世纪中美印三边关系

中美印三边关系的互动将在很大程度上影响着国际体系的发展。美国能否利用印度平衡和制约中国,并不完全取决于美印关系的发展。从现实主义角度出发,在经济全球化趋势下,中印之间的共同利益远远大于分歧,只要中国坚持走和平发展道路,印度就不会被美国利用来制约中国;而中美之间的战略目标虽有相当多的差异,但也存在不少利益交汇点。根据自由制度主义理论分析,中美印相互依存关系不断加深,与中美印有关的国际合作机制在发展。中印之间和美印之间有一些共同价值观,中美在价值观上也并非完全不同。中印战略文化的相似之处大大多于美印之间。从建构主义角度看,中印是国际体系中的新兴大国,但都不愿挑战国际体系中居于主导地位的大国——美国的领导地位,也不想打破现有的国际秩序和国际规则,而是主张在遵循国际法准则、平等和相互尊重、合作以及推动多极化的基础上推动国际秩序朝公正合理的方向发展。中美印有必要建立相对均衡的三边关系。如各方处理得当,中美印有可能避免“安全困境”,建立起“双赢”或“多赢”关系。     

后新冠疫情时代中国开拓印度洋出海大通道的机遇与挑战

出海大通道的建设涉及中国的政治、经济和国家安全,是国家未来发展的关键利益所在.在新冠疫情影响下,国际格局受到二战以来前所未有的冲击,疫情已成为影响当前国家间关系、国际格局以及秩序的最重大因素.疫情带来的冲击短期内难以消除,在后疫情时代,国际形势仍将继续发生巨大转变,尤其是中美战略竞争全面升级给中国发展带来了前所未有的挑战.当前中国开拓和维护印度洋出海大通道的影响因素有增加和复杂化的趋势.此次疫情极大地冲击了各国经济,导致全球经济衰退,后新冠疫情时代促进经济发展将会是各国共同的目标.中国需继续推动"一带一路"建设,助力"一带一路"建设成为全球经济发展的引擎,吸引更多的国家加入.此外,中国应尽快推出"两洋出海"战略,构建新的出海格局,连接太平洋和印度洋的出海通道,形成战略互动.在对接"一带一路"的基础上将云南省打造成为中国印度洋出海通道上的战略支点,成为中国构建西南方向出海的中心和桥梁.在后疫情时代,中国需要清楚认识开拓印度洋出海大通道建设的必要性和紧迫性,抓紧印度洋出海大通道的谋篇布局,促进"一带一路"倡议和"两洋出海"战略的深入发展,保障中国的海洋权益,建设海洋强国.     

日本“国家正常化”与美国的东亚地缘战略

战后,由于美军单独占领日本,美国占领当局直接主导了日本的非法西斯化改革,日本的对外政策也被纳入美国的东亚地缘战略框架内。正因如此,战后日本的"国家正常化"进程与美国的亚洲地缘战略密切联系在一起。冷战时期,日本充当美国在亚洲的"冷战"哨兵,日本在"旧金山体制"下获得"独立"和国际空间。冷战结束后,美国推行全球霸权战略,日本乘机加强与美国的军事同盟关系,扩展自主权。尤其进入21世纪,日本通过参与美国的"反恐"战争,实现了海外派兵。近年来美国实施战略东移和"亚太再平衡",日本借机加快修宪活动和军事"解禁",加速日本"国家正常化"的步伐。     

冷战初期日本南海政策及东南亚战略取向

冷战使日本在美国的全球战略中作用提升,成为反共"防波堤",其具有政治目的性的东南亚"经济外交"呈现出明显的海洋战略取向,且影响至今。因地缘利益、东南亚战略,日本南海政策的基本出发点自冷战开始后始终没变,即追随美国遏制中国政策,对南海诸岛归属问题上采取模糊态度和立场,这为后来南海周边某些国家侵占南海岛礁留下所谓借口。此时日本还曾插足于南海诸岛,由于海峡两岸对南海权益的维护使其非法行为无法为继,但随着经济的发展,日本越来越依赖南海航道和加大南海石油资源的开发,这决定其"关心"南海问题就是势所必然了。     

Two postscripts to the McCarran hearings

Abstract

For nearly three decades following World War II Japan was officially considered to be America's newly befriended and unthreatening client in East Asia. Today that is no longer entirely true. A major change is underway in the justifying ideology and the imagery surrounding the US relationship with Japan. Bureaucrats, businessmen, journalists, and academics now portray Japan provocatively to the American public as a direct threat to the viability of America's key economic institutions. To understand why this shift in the official perception and evaluation of Japan is occurring, and what a change in the dominant ideological teaching about postwar Japan portends, I will focus first on two successive periods—the 1970s and the early 1980s—during which the US-Japan bilateral relationship reflected important changes in the world economy and the US position within it. Then, after having described the environment within which US-Japan frictions have been working themselves out, I shall argue that influential ruling elites in the United States are now coming around to the view that the new challenge confronting US global hegemony is the narrowing technological gap between the US and its main industrial competitors. This will lead me to say a few words about the different forces acting to shape science and technology in the United States and Japan. Finally, I shall conclude by recommending what may be a more rational approach for Japan to take in the international arena if it still wishes to preserve its “peace constitution” into the next century.     

新世纪以来越南对美“伙伴关系”政策评析

新世纪以来越南对美"伙伴关系"政策的提出及实施推动越美关系取得了突破性的进展,但给越中全面战略伙伴关系的稳定带来了消极影响,并造成越美在南海问题上携手制衡中国的趋势加强,导致当前南海周边地区局势愈加复杂化。未来的越美关系将在两国建立"全面伙伴关系"的框架下尝试进行带有结盟性质的合作,受此影响,未来越中关系有可能演变成为长期的"经热政冷"格局。     

Japan and global environmental leadership

Japan is poised to take on the responsibilities of environmental leadership. The environment is a “new” issue and the assumption by Japan of an activist role will not provoke unease in Asia about Japanese intentions or be viewed in the United States as a challenge to its global hegemony. Japan more than any other country appears to have broken the link between economic growth and ecological degradation. It offers a cognitive model to other nations, especially its East Asian neighbors concerned by the nonsustainability of current growth models. Japan also deploys financial and technological resources that make a leadership bid credible.     

Textbooks and Patriotic Education: Wartime Memory Formation in China and Japan

The treatment of the wartime period in Japan's history textbooks has long been a subject of debate and controversy, even a source of international tension. Since their creation, history textbooks have been used to shape national identity and encourage patriotism. This article, drawing on the comparative study of high school history textbooks in Japan, China, South Korea, Taiwan and the United States by Stanford's Divided Memories and Reconciliation project, compares the treatment of the wartime period in the textbooks of China and Japan. The study found that Japanese textbooks are relatively devoid of overt attempts to promote patriotism and that they contain more information about controversial wartime issues such as the Nanjing Massacre than is widely believed. In contrast, Chinese textbooks, particularly after their revision a decade ago, are consciously aimed at promoting a nationalist view of the past as part of the country's “patriotic education” campaign. The article warns, however, against efforts in Japan to promote a Japanese-style version of patriotic education.     

Whither Mr Abe's Japan?

This article reviews Japan's strategic options and policy initiatives under Prime Minister Abe, taking into consideration strategic changes in the region; chiefly a rising China and a United States approaching geopolitical retreat, and the policy implications of these developments. Mr Abe's announced goal is to restore Japan to its once great power status, and thus far success is proving elusive.

MAIN ARGUMENT

Hurdles in Mr Abe's path include the differing perceptions between Japan and its neighbours regarding Japan's history, and the deeply entrenched nature of these differences pose a significant barrier. A related aspect is the territorial disputes. A second task is to be a “normal” nation, that is exercising greater independence in security matters and matters of economic policy, and here differences arise with Japan's main ally, the United States. Furthermore Mr Abe also needs to convince the Japanese public as well as Japan's prospective allies about his views regarding Japan's security role in the region. A third task is to increase Japan's economic weight by turning around the Japanese economy from its existing stasis to sustained, robust growth.

POLICY IMPLICATIONS

Mr Abe is making urgent policy efforts in all directions and the rather uneven outcome experienced thus far has not deterred him, thus creating uncertainty for Japan, and enhancing the feeling of insecurity in the region. The ostensible policy choice facing Mr Abe now is to either persist with his existing policies, hence entrenching the increasing tensions in the region, or to accept a rapidly rising China and formulate policies more accommodative of that development.     

Asian Security without the United States? Examining China’s Security Strategy in Maritime and Continental Asia

Chinese President Xi Jinping has touted an Asian security architecture in which “it is for the people of Asia to run the affairs of Asia.” But does China really want to exclude the United States from the regional order? This article argues that previous answers are often insufficient because they do not account for sub-regional variation in China’s strategy. In maritime Asia, China seeks a significantly reduced role for the US and its alliances though major constraints limit the prospects for success. In continental Asia, however, the situation is more nuanced, with Beijing alternately ignoring, supporting, or hedging against US presence. The policy implication is that Washington should not overstate Beijing’s role as either a regional adversary or a regional partner. Rather, the United States needs to approach China on its own terms across sub-regions.     

美国南海政策的军事化及其影响

当前,国际社会正处于"百年未有之大变局"中,中美两国竞争加剧。在这一背景下,美国南海政策的军事化倾向尤为突出。通过案例分析、运用比较分析的方法对美国南海政策军事化及其影响进行探究,可以看出美国南海政策军事化的主要目的是遏制中国的崛起。为达到这一目的,美国提升了"航行自由行动"的频率和烈度,增加了在南海内沿和外围的军事战略存在,还加强了与盟国的同盟关系。不过,美国国内有一部分人认为南海政策军事化目前并未达到其希望的效力,反而使美国在战争与和平之间愈加难以保持平衡。美国在南海地区的影响力受到挑战的同时,中美关系也因此有所倒退,南海局势变得更加复杂。鉴于此,中国一方面要保持克制态度,增强危机意识,做好预案,通过高质量外交对话等方式增进与美国的政治互信,另一方面也要加快推进与东盟国家《南海各方行为准则》的谈判与磋商,与东盟国家一道维护好南海地区的和平与稳定。     

How the East Asian Crisis Will Change International Relations

We may expect regional response to the tension and conflict in Asia begun by China in 2009 gradually to transform the international order in that region, where the United States has been the active great power. Today the United States is so overextended in commitments and so lacking in force structure (and political will) that she can no longer play that role. Nor, however, has China succeeded in her initial assumption that regional powers would defer to her vastly increased military power. Unless China finds a way to extricate herself, we may expect regional powers, each strengthening herself, to grow closer together as a group in which Tokyo plays an unaccustomed central role, both in diplomacy and arms supply, although in coordination with the United States. North Korea is also highly dangerous. The likely outcome is greater military strength generally, with South Korea and Japan nuclear powers.