If technology is the answer,what does it take?

This article aims to assess why technology such as improved crop varieties has not taken off in Tanzania in spite of substantial efforts, and to consider what role policy plays in that regard. Few farmers use improved varieties due to reasons such as affordability in relation to the low profitability of farming; high risk, including fake seed in the market; and unpredictable policies and marketing opportunities. Effective governance is needed for agriculture to be transformed in the direction stated in national policy documents, but weak institutions and the collective interests of farmers not being sufficiently recognised hinder the likelihood of necessary technological changes happening.     

The welfare impacts of market channel choice by smallholder farmers in Tanzania

This article analyses the impact of market channel choice on household welfare by maize and pigeon pea smallholder farmers in Tanzania, using a multinomial endogenous treatment approach. The study utilises farm household-level data collected from a randomly selected sample of 700 smallholder farmers. The results show that participation with traders in nearby markets and wholesalers in nearby towns have a positive effect on consumption expenditure per capita relative to brokers at the farmgate, for both maize and pigeon pea-farming households. The study suggests that interventions that aimed at inclusion of smallholder farmers in more profitable markets could improve household welfare and reduce poverty among rural households.     

Collective action in small-scale mushroom production in Swaziland: does organisational form matter?

While substantial literature is available on the determinants of small-scale farmers’ participation in collective action, and the welfare impacts of producing and/or marketing collectively, studies on the likely implications of organisational form on producers’ collective behaviour remain scant. This article attempts to address this knowledge gap by using an example of different forms of small-scale mushroom-producing groups in Swaziland. Given the importance of collective action in sub-Saharan Africa, the overall results of this article provide valuable insights into alternative means of coordinating commercial small-scale agricultural activities, which can improve producers’ ultimate benefits while reducing the likelihood of internal free-riding.     

Promoting country ownership and inclusive growth? An assessment of Feed the Future

This article investigates the level of country ownership and inclusivity in Feed the Future (FtF) projects in Ethiopia, Ghana, Haiti, Senegal, and Tanzania. It finds that though interventions largely align with country-defined priorities and plans, other aspects of country ownership – consultation and provision of aid through local systems – are weaker than expected. Regarding inclusion, FtF is to some extent exclusive, perhaps as an unintended consequence of alignment with national development plans that do not reasonably promote equity. Focus is mostly on productive areas and ‘market-ready’ smallholders. The article suggests policy actions needed to better achieve expected results.     

A multidimensional approach to measuring household food security in Taraba State,Nigeria: comparing key indicators

This study used household data from Taraba State, Nigeria, to explore the advantages of using a multidimensional approach to measure food and nutrition insecurity. Adaptations of three popular food security indicators were combined in a single household questionnaire to test how well the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), the Dietary Diversity Score (DDS), and the Coping Strategies Index (CSI) complement each other. Sixty-nine per cent of households in the sample were classified as extremely food insecure, which means they are likely to resort to intensive but erosive coping strategies and lower dietary diversity. The three indicators powerfully complemented each other. This multidimensional food security measurement framework provided a more nuanced picture of the depth and breadth of food insecurity for local government areas in Taraba State. This approach can help Nigerian policy authorities overcome the information deficits that impede effective food and nutrition assistance interventions.     

Endogenous development: some issues of concern

This article aims to provide knowledge and practical guidance to managing and implementing within the framework of endogenous development. The paper gives a theoretical overview of endogenous development, linked to issues of globalisation and poverty, and ongoing work among European institutions and academics that suggest shifts in Europe from exogenous to endogenous development approaches. It then makes a case for a paradigm shift – an African alternative to modernisation and development, namely endogenous development – using experiences with two NGOs in Ghana and Zimbabwe to locate theory in practice. The paper concludes with some empirical pre-requisites for conducting endogenous development with rural communities.

This article is prompted by the requests of my students at the University for Development Studies, Ghana, for knowledge and information, and practical guidance to managing and implementing within the framework of endogenous development. I start by giving a theoretical overview of the concept of endogenous development and link it with current issues of globalisation and poverty. I briefly mention current work among European institutions and academics that suggest shifts in Europe from exogenous to endogenous development approaches. Encouraged by such developments, I then make a case for a paradigm shift – an African alternative to modernisation and development, endogenous development. I bring to light the experiences with endogenous development in two NGOs – CECIK (Ghana) and AZTREC (Zimbabwe) – in order to locate theory in practice (praxis). I conclude by providing some empirical prerequisites for conducting endogenous development with rural communities, which demonstrate one way of conducting experimentation with farmers within the context of endogenous development.     

Food security composite indices: implications for policy and practice

Food security is a major topic in academic and international debates. Numerous indicators have been proposed in order to establish which countries are in need of improved food security status, but the lack of consensus as to which indicator of food insecurity is the most appropriate has motivated scholars to propose composite indexes. Building composite indexes involves multiple choices. This Viewpoint warns how discretional choices of algorithms to compute composite indexes for food security may alter the findings. By commenting on the implications that different measurement choices may have in terms of global indexes, the Viewpoint raises provocative practical and political concerns.     

Does plot size matter? Evidence from maize production in Babati District,Tanzania

Debates about optimal farm structure and size have a long history in agricultural economics. Agricultural and development economists argue for an inverse relationship between farm size and productivity, but debates around this remain inconclusive. This article provides a case from maize production in Babati District, Tanzania. The efficiency level of 122 sampled smallholder farmers was estimated and found to be 62.3%, suggesting 37.7% of inefficiencies. A U-shape relationship between plot size and efficiency scores was found. There was high efficiency at plots <2?ha, compared to 2?ha and 3?ha, followed by efficiency at plots >4?ha. Policies stimulating small- and large-scale farms in the country are imperative.     

One-stop border posts and informal livelihoods in Busia,Kenya

‘One-stop border posts’ (OSBP) are being developed on East African trade corridors to support growth in cross-border trade in the region. This article presents a household survey examining the impact of the OSBP at Busia on the Kenya–Uganda border on the livelihoods of informal traders and workers. It finds positive effects through enhanced access to cross-border trade. However, it also finds negative effects, including reduced work opportunities for unskilled manual workers. Further research is needed into the long-term effects on the price and foreign exchange differentials which currently incentivise the informal trade, before the effects can be fully assessed.     

Understanding food policy change in Ghana

Evidence-based policy-making has become a critical aspect of development strategy in developing countries. Yet the assumption that policymakers will automatically use available evidence may not be valid in all contexts. To influence positive policy change requires an understanding of the unique policy process and drivers of policy change in the context of a particular country and sector. Strengthening the capacity of key agricultural policy stakeholders can facilitate evidence-informed policy-making. This article documents an approach to strengthening the capacity of parliamentarians in Ghana. It attempts to measure to what extent such investments could lead to informed policy-making to promote poverty reduction. Lessons are drawn from a group of Ghanaian parliamentarians following an exposure and learning visit to India.     

Assessing food insecurity in Botswana: the case of Gaborone

The search for appropriate tools to assess food and nutrition insecurity is a major preoccupation for development practitioners. This paper explores the potential of complementing a mainstream measure of food security, the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS), with a political ecology approach, using a case study from Gaborone, Botswana. HDDS exposes differential food access, illustrated by varying household dietary diversity scores and commonly accessed food groups, while a political ecology approach helps explains how and why households lack access to certain food groups. HDDS enriched with political ecology analysis will provide more useful conclusions to practitioners and policymakers.

L'évaluation de l'insécurité de l'alimentation au Botswana : le cas de Gaborone

La recherche d'outils appropriés à l'évaluation de l'insécurité de l'alimentation et de la nutrition est pour les praticiens du développement une préoccupation majeure. Moyennant une étude de cas de Gaborone au Botswana cet article examine le potentiel d'une liaison entre une méthode traditionnelle pour mesurer la sécurité de l'alimentation, HDDS (Taux de Diversité de Diététique Familiale) avec une démarche basée sur l'écologie politique. HDDS expose l'accès différentiel à l'alimentation, illustré par les taux variables des diététiques familiales et par la fréquence d'accès aux groupes nutritionnels. Le HDDS, enrichi par une analyse de l'écologie politique, fournira des conclusions plus utiles pour les praticiens et pour les décideurs.

Evaluando la inseguridad alimentaria en Botsuana: el caso de Gaborone

La búsqueda de métodos apropiados para evaluar la inseguridad alimentaria y la nutrición constituye una preocupación importante entre los operadores de desarrollo. A partir de un caso de Gaborone, Botsuana, el presente artículo examina el potencial de complementar la Calificación de Diversidad en la Dieta del Hogar (cddh), medida común de seguridad alimentaria, con un enfoque de ecología política. Mientras la cddh revela la existencia de un acceso diferenciado a los alimentos, lo cual es evidenciado por las distintas calificaciones de diversidad en la dieta y por los grupos de alimentos que comúnmente se adquieren, el enfoque de ecología política ayuda a explicar cómo y por qué los hogares no tienen acceso a ciertos grupos de alimentos. Por lo que, en combinación con un análisis de ecología política, la cddh arrojará conclusiones que resulten de mayor utilidad para los operadores y los formuladores de políticas en este sentido.

Avaliando a insegurança alimentar em Botsuana: o caso de Gaborone

A busca por ferramentas adequadas para avaliar a insegurança alimentar e nutricional é uma grande preocupação para os que atuam da área de desenvolvimento. Este artigo explora o potencial de se complementar uma medida convencional da insegurança alimentar, a Pontuação da Diversidade Alimentar da Família (Household Dietary Diversity Score - HDDS), com uma abordagem de ecologia política, utilizando um estudo de caso de Gaborone, Botsuana. A HDDS mostra um acesso a alimentos diferente, ilustrado por pontuações variáveis da diversidade alimentar da família e grupos de alimentos comumente acessados, enquanto uma abordagem de ecologia política ajuda a explicar como e por que as famílias não têm acesso a certos grupos de alimentos. A HDDS, enriquecida por uma análise de ecologia política, oferecerá conclusões mais úteis para atuantes da área prática e formuladores de políticas.     

Indicators for economic vulnerability to drought in South Africa

This article identifies and estimates economic drought vulnerability indicators among communal farmers in South Africa, using an economic vulnerability index based on a household survey of 121 communal farmers. The results show that lack of resources, unemployment, price sensitivity, market access, the level of farm debt, output, on- and off-farm diversification, management, and financial safety nets were the main economic vulnerability variables. Farm debt and financial safety provide the bulk of the vulnerability index. The study’s findings suggest that government should reconsider priorities in the implementation of appropriate policy measures in response to drought.     

Agricultural service delivery: strengthening private crop protection service in southern Ethiopia

As one element of agricultural service delivery, in Ethiopia crop protection service has generally only involved the private sector on a small scale. This article outlines a case study where private crop protection service (PCPS) was strengthened from 2006 to 2010 in Halaba Special District, southern Ethiopia. The study used questionnaires, analysis, service comparison, ranking, and indicator-based assessments. The study shows that PCPS in 2007/08 crop seasons served 1,104 households on 1,707?ha of land in 19 Kebeles, contributing US$327,752 in total. Assessment indicators values were better for PCPS than the informal crop protection service. Piloting PCPS strengthening is recommended to improve crop protection service and reduce crop loss in Ethiopia.     

Contextualising emergency responses to famine among Turkana pastoralists in Kenya

The pastoralism of the Turkana has persisted in the challenging environment of northwestern Kenya for some 200 years. Yet many pastoralists find that they increasingly rely on food relief during droughts and famines. This article contextualises emergency responses to famine among Turkana pastoralists by considering their encounters with colonialism, development, and humanitarian interventions. It uses key informant interviews, participant observation, and content analysis, to analyse the benefits and challenges of a small-scale food relief programme. The article argues that such programmes can weaken the viability of pastoralism, and concludes with considerations for future policy and programming.     

The impact of drought on commercial livestock farmers in South Africa

This article reports on a study that aimed to assess the impact of the 2015 drought in South Africa on commercial livestock producers, with specific reference to the associated drought adoption strategies. The study was based on primary data collected from 350 commercial livestock producers from seven different provinces. The findings revealed that the effect of drought had a significant impact on average herd size, livestock feeding, and sheep flock. Commercial livestock producers did not receive any form of assistance from the government. The majority of the farmers did not have any preventive measures in place during the drought. The study recommends that the government and policymakers should introduce a mechanism to support commercial livestock farmers when drought strikes.     

Farmers’ perceptions of milk-collecting centres in Thailand's dairy industry

This study assessed farmers’ perceptions of milk-collecting centres (MCCs) in the central and north-eastern regions of Thailand. MCCs can be divided into two groups, dairy cooperatives and private organisations. There were similar perceptions about the role of MCCs among the farmers regarding the basic needs of dairy farmers, but with a stronger focus of economic issues for private organisation members, while dairy cooperative members views were more from the perspective of ownership. The farmers were somewhat satisfied with their MCCs’ performance, except that private organisation farmers were less satisfied with credit services. Policy recommendations are presented.     

Farmer typology formulation accounting for psychological capital: implications for on-farm entrepreneurial development

Understanding and accounting for the heterogeneity of small farmers is critical for informing development pathways to improve the performance of smallholder irrigation. Using multivariate analysis, this study sought to develop farmer typologies in and around irrigation schemes and used these to inform strategies for on-farm entrepreneurship development. The research uniquely integrates psychological capital in defining farmer typologies, to capture individual features of each farmer, otherwise missed by the generic sustainable livelihoods framework literature. The study affirms the need to focus on psychological capital and concludes that heterogeneity among small-scale irrigators should be accounted for in future agricultural and rural development programmes.     

A case for integrated development: pathways to improve child well-being

Economic strengthening interventions may increase income, assets, and food security. Donors and implementers see the potential for improvements in child well-being. This article presents lessons learnt from the implementation of two economic strengthening interventions. It finds missed opportunities with regard to child nutrition, and recommends: (1) integrating economic strengthening interventions with complementary development activities; (2) deep formative assessment to inform programme design; and (3) the use of community-based feedback loops. Development practitioners, funders, policymakers, and researchers must take every opportunity to improve the lives of children as young as possible to build healthy families, communities, and nations.     

Commercial behaviours of smallholder farmers in wheat seed use and its implication for demand assessment in Ethiopia

The article presents the commercial behaviour and its determinants of smallholder farmers in wheat seed use, and its implication for seed demand assessment, based on primary data from 524 wheat farmers in the major wheat growing areas covering 22 woredas in 11 zones in the Amhara, Oromiya, SNNP, and Tigray regions of Ethiopia. Although 69% of farmers use improved varieties, the overwhelming majority use seed from informal sources: own saved seed (52%) or purchased seed from local sources (32%). The article documents the distribution of wheat growers into different wheat seed market positions (autarkic, buying, or selling), and identifies the key determinants of these market behaviours. The results can serve as a guide in assessing the wheat seed demand from the formal sector at a national level.     

Food insecurity and ART adherence in Swaziland: the case for coordinated faith-based and multi-sectoral action

ABSTRACT

Faith-based organisations (FBOs) have long been involved in HIV and AIDS impact mitigation and humanitarian relief, but most are not equipped to intervene in the structural drivers of food insecurity and attendant health inequities. Acknowledging limitations is as paramount a task for organisational effectiveness as maximising strengths. This article reports findings from a study of HIV-positive care supporters who volunteer with a church-run home-based care organisation in Swaziland. The article seeks to assess the impact of chronic food insecurity on antiretroviral adherence practices and how these individuals manage daily food shortages. Findings highlight the limited capacities of FBOs in highly vulnerable settings and the imperative for international and governmental coordination.