Separation-individuation and ego identity status in New Zealand university students

This study explores intrapsychic structures underlying Marcia's ego identity statuses in terms of separation-individuation patterns. It was hypothesized that achievement and moratorium adolescents would give greater evidence of intrapsychic differentiation on a projective measure of separation anxiety than would foreclosure or diffusion youths. Marcia's Ego Identity Status Interview and Hansburg's Separation Anxiety Test were administered to 80 female and 60 male volunteers at a New Zealand university. All were under 23 years of age. As predicted, high statuses showed less anxiety than secure attachment or detachment. Contrary to expectation, no differences among attachment styles appeared for low statuses. Difficulties in adapting the identity status interview to the New Zealand context may partially explain these results. A measure of intrapsychic differentiation provides a useful supplement to the identity status interview.This research was supported by a grant from the Internal Research Committee, Victoria University of Wellington. Parts of this research were presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Toronto, 1985.Received Ph.D in child development from Florida State University in 1977. Current research interest is identity formation from a lifespan perspective.     

Identity Statuses as Developmental Trajectories: A Five-Wave Longitudinal Study in Early-to-Middle and Middle-to-Late Adolescents

This study tested whether Marcia's original identity statuses of achievement, moratorium, early closure (a new label for foreclosure), and diffusion, can be considered identity status trajectories. That is, we examined whether these statuses are distinct and relatively stable, over-time configurations of commitment strength,?levels of in-depth exploration of present commitments, and consideration of alternative commitments. The study examined identity development in a five-wave study of 923 early-to-middle (49.3% female) and 390 middle-to-late adolescents (56.7% female), covering the ages of 12-20. Using Latent class growth analysis (LCGA), the authors found that Marcia's (1966) statuses are indeed identity status trajectories. Two kinds of moratorium were also found: the classical moratorium and searching moratorium. Support was found for Waterman's developmental hypothesis of the identity status model: the number of achievers was significantly higher, and the number of diffusions lower, in middle-to-late adolescence than in early-to-middle adolescence. Females were more often in the advanced identity status trajectories, and stable differences were found between the trajectories in psychosocial adjustment. Study findings highlight that identity formation should be conceptualized as an over-time process.     

Studies on identity development in adolescence: An overview of research and some new data

The fundamental developmental hypothesis of the identity status model is that as adolescents become older they undergo progressive developmental shifts in identity status: from diffusion to foreclosure or moratorium, from foreclosure to moratorium, and from moratorium to identity achievement. In Study I we give an overview of identity status studies carried out during the period 1966–1993 and show that progressive developmental trends (PDTs) are found in most of these studies. However, they usually involve progressive developmental trends in one of the higher or lower statuses (PDT 1), while only a small minority involve systematic progressive developmental trends, i.e., in at least three statuses (PDT3). It is easier to show progressive developmental trends with separate measures for commitment and exploration than with identity status classification. Study II reports on our own research into relational identity, measured with a new instrument: the Utrecht-Groningen Identity Development Scale (U-GIDS). Application of the U-GIDS allows the construction of four statuses: diffusion, moratorium, closed commitment and achieving commitment. For these four statuses progressive developmental trends were found for relational identity in both one of the higher and one of the lower statuses. The four statuses of our model display exactly the same connection with psychological well-being as the statuses of Marcia's model. The high commitment statuses show the highest level of psychological well-being, followed by the diffusions, while the moratoriums are the least happy. This result offers a new perspective on moratorium as a high identity status. Finally it was found that the differences in psychological well-being among the statuses become greater as adolescents become older.This research was supported by a grant from the Dutch Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) to the Utrecht Study on Adolescent Development (USAD) 1991–1997.Research interests include personality and social development in adolescence.     

Fathers and sons: A study of ego identity across two generations

This study was designed to compare the relative frequencies of the various ego identity statuses across two generations and to determine the nature of the relationship between the identity statuses of fathers and their sons. Male college students and their fathers were given Marcia 's semistructured ego identity status interview. Generational comparisons revealed that the fathers were significantly more likely than their sons to be in the foreclosure category and were significantly less likely than their sons to be in the moratorium and diffusion statuses. No relationship was found between the identity statuses of fathers and their sons. Among the fathers, high levels of education were found to be associated with identity achievement, while low levels of education were associated with identity diffusion.     

Examining the Light and Dark Sides of Emerging Adults�� Identity: A Study of Identity Status Differences in Positive and Negative Psychosocial Functioning

Identity is a critical developmental task during the transition to adulthood in Western societies. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate an empirically based, cluster-analytic identity status model, to examine whether all four of Marcia's identity statuses (diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement) would emerge empirically, and to identify different patterns of identity formation among American college-attending emerging adults. An ethnically diverse sample of 9,034 emerging-adult students (73% female; mean age 19.73?years) from 30 U.S. universities completed measures of identity exploration (ruminative, in breadth, and in depth) and commitment (commitment making and identification with commitment), identity synthesis and confusion, positive and negative psychosocial functioning, and health-compromising behaviors. The identity status cluster solution that emerged provided an adequate fit to the data and included all four of Marcia's original identity statuses, along with Carefree Diffusion and Undifferentiated statuses. Results provided evidence for concurrent validity, construct validity, and practical applicability of these statuses. Implications for identity research are discussed.     

Identity Formation in Early and Middle Adolescents From Various Ethnic Groups: From Three Dimensions to Five Statuses

We used three identity processes (i.e., commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment) from a recently developed model of identity formation to derive empirically identity statuses in a sample of 1952 early and middle adolescents. By means of cluster analysis, we identified five statuses: achievement, foreclosure, moratorium, searching moratorium, and diffusion. Specifically, we found an intra-status differentiation within moratorium, unraveling the positive and negative facets of this status documented in prior literature. The five clusters could be meaningfully distinguished on a number of variables, such as personality features, psychosocial problems, and parental relationships. These findings indicated that a valid distinction in identity statuses could be made in early and middle adolescence. Finally, age and ethnic background strongly affected the distribution of the participants among the five identity statuses. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

The ego-virtue of fidelity: A case for the study of religion and identity formation in adolescence

Extrapolation from Erik Erikson's theory of human development suggests the ego-virtue of fidelity provides a conceptual link between religion and identity formation. It is argued here that fidelity, within identity statuses, is characterized by commitment (i.e., foreclosure and achievement). Further, due to the connection between fidelity and ideology, greater evidence of fidelity and identity commitment should be observed among religious minority adolescents and among adolescents who more frequently attend church. Partial support was shown for these predictions. Mormon adolescents, who were minorities in the broader societal context, but majorities in their local community context, were found to score higher in identity foreclosure in comparison to Catholic and Protestant adolescents who were religious minorities in their local community context. It was suggested that premature foreclosure among Mormon adolescents may be due to the importance of exhibiting indicators of fidelity as efforts to strengthen one's minority identity and one's minority group in respect to the broader society. More frequent church attendance was related to higher scores in commitment identity statuses (i.e., foreclosure and achievement). Apparently, consistent church attendance is not required for heightened scores in the exploration status of moratorium.Received Ph.D. in developmental psychology from the Department of Psychology, Utah State University. Research interests: identity formation and psychosocial maturity in adolescence, ethnic and religious minority adolescents, and social relationships.Received Ms.C. in Consumer Studies, University of Guelph. Research interest: facilitating learning of computer software.Received B.S. in psychology at Utah State University.     

Multivariate analysis of the relationship of psychosocial crisis variables to Ego Identity Status

The purpose of the present study was the investigation of the intercorrelations among psychosocial crisis resolution variables and ego identity statuses. The focus of the study was correlational including discriminant analyses which allowed for the identification of psychosocial crisis predictor variables which significantly distinguished identity statuses. Discriminant analyses were also computed for the purpose of identifying variables which significantly distinguished male and female identity statuses. Eighty-eight university students drawn from a variety of on-campus populations were each administered Marcia's Ego Identity Status Interview and completed Rasmussen's Ego Identity Scale. Review of the findings appeared to support Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. The evidence presented also demonstrated additional convergent and discriminant validity of Marcia's ego identity status concept. The results assisted in distinguishing male and female identity statuses. The findings tended to indicate that coping with the identity crisis (e.g., identity status) involves different psychosocial components.This paper is based in part on a doctoral dissertation submitted to The Graduate School of Education of The University of Virginia, 1975.Received his D.Ed. from the University of Virginia. Primary research interest is theoretical and practical implications of ego identity crisis and correlates of the different identity statuses.     

A longitudinal study of ego identity development at a liberal arts college

Ego identity development in the areas of occupational choice, religion, and political ideology was studied using Marcia's categorization system. The results indicated a significant increase in the frequency of the identity achiever status for occupational choice and corresponding decreases in the frequency of the moratorium and identity diffusion statuses. A significant decrease in the frequency of foreclosures on religion was also found. In those instances where students underwent an identity crisis, the probability of resolving it successfully was very high. High scores on the Cultural Sophistication scale of the College Student Questionnaire-Part 1 were found to be associated with presence in the identity achievement status. For students not in the achiever status as freshmen, an interest in various literary and art forms was predictive of becoming an achiever while in college.Received his Ph.D. from SUNY/Buffalo. Recent research has been mainly concerned with the development of ego identity and with techniques for resolving identity crises.Received his Ph.D. from Syracuse University. Recent research has been mainly concerned with personality moderators of human judgment.     

The impact of the identity crisis on the adjustment of late adolescent males

The relationship between ego identity status and MMPI scores was investigated using 73 college males. Identity status was assessed using a semistructured interview. The results obtained indicated that subjects in the identity achievement status obtained MMPI scores which fell within the normal range of functioning. Subjects currently involved in working on identity issues (moratorium status) obtained a pattern of scores indicating the presence of psychological conflict, as did foreclosure subjects—that is, subjects who are characterized by rigid adherence to parental norms and values. Subjects who had not successfully resolved their identity crisis (identity diffusion status) had MMPI scores within the normal range. The findings partly support Erikson's theorizing on ego identity and indicate that further analysis and refinement of Marcia's typology is required. Results from the present study also indicate that future research with male subjects on ego identity status should include some assessment of sexual attitudes.This research was partly supported by research grants from the National Science Foundation (NSF-USDP No. GU 1598) and a grant from the National Institute of Mental Health (MH 16899). The senior author was supported by a National Science Foundation traineeship during the time this study was performed.Clinical psychology graduate student, doing research on adolescent personality development from an Eriksonian perspective.Received Ph.D. from the University of Minnesota. Current research is on adolescent personality development from an Eriksonian perspective.     

Identity status and interpersonal style

A group of 22 undergraduates at a large Midwestern state university were interviewed to determine their identity states, i.e., identity foreclosure, identity diffusion, identity moratorium, moratorium-diffusion, or identity achievement. A distinctive interpersonal style, both toward peers and toward authority, was associated with each identity status. For example, the identity foreclosed people were talkative, compliant toward authority, and covetous of the regard of peers; the identity moratorium people were rebellious toward authority and counterdependent toward peers. The significance of these findings for a theory of identity development is discussed.Received his Ph.D. from the University of Michigan, 1970. His primary research interest is in personality development during young adulthood, but he is involved in a variety of strictly clinical research projects as well.     

Psychosocial Resources in First-Year University Students: The Role of Identity Processes and Social Relationships

The investigation involved the assessment of a model predicting that family and university relationship environments are linked with identity processes and identity states (statuses) that predict psychosocial resources among first-year university students. A sample of 351 university students, between the ages of 18 and 21 years, completed measures of psychosocial maturity based on Erikson's notions of ego virtues, a measure of identity processing styles (diffuse-avoidant, normative, and information styles), identity statuses (diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement), measures of family climate (conflict, expression, cohesion), and assessments of university relationships with faculty, advisors, and students. Based on linear structural equations, the model, with some adjustments, had a good fit with the data and demonstrates the complex association between perceived family and school climate, identity formation, and the association with psychosocial resources. The investigation demonstrates how multivariate model testing can be completed to assess some of the complexity suggested by Erik Erikson regarding identity formation. Gerald R Adams is a Professor of Family Relations and Human Development at the University of Guelph in Ontario, Canada. His major interests focus on family relations, identity development, education, and prevention. Michael Berzonsky is Professor of Psychology at State University of New York at Cortland, New York. His major interests are identity styles, social cognition, and adolescent development. Leo Keating is a data analyst at the University of Guelph.     

The state of research on ego identity: A review and appraisal

In the first part of this review (see Volume 7, Number 3 of this journal), a comprehensive survey of empirical research on ego identity was presented. Special emphasis was given to the large number of studies employing James Marcia's identity status paradigm. Research within this paradigm is recapitulated here by presenting empirical results which typify each of the four identity statuses (i.e., achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion). A detailed evaluation of the identity status paradigm itself follows. Among the topics considered are (1) the construct and external validity of the approach as a whole, (2) the rationale and discriminant validity of the identity statuses, and (3) the reliability of the Identity Status Interview. Part II concludes by considering a number of problems for future research. Several persisting methodological and substantive issues within the identity status paradigm are noted. Finally, it is suggested that investigators turn their attention to the processes mediating identity formation. Contemporary psychoanalytic conceptions of adolescent development are viewed as providing one possible theoretical framework for investigating such processes.Support for this study comes from Research Training Grant No. 5T32MH14668-02 awarded to Dr. D. Offer by the National Institute of Mental Health.Postdoctoral Fellow in the Clinical Research Training Program in Adolescence jointly sponsored by the Institute for Psychosomatic and Psychiatric Research and Training of Michael Reese Hospital and Medical Center and the Committee on Human Development of the University of Chicago. Research interests are adolescent ego development and epistemological/methodological issues in personality theory and measurement.     

Familial correlates of identity formation in late adolescence: A study of the predictive utility of connectedness and individuality in family relations

Past investigations have documented that late adolescence is associated with developmental changes in identity formation resulting in individual differences in identity statuses. Particular attention has been given to the identification and study of diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and identity achievement statuses. Drawing from the recent theoretical speculations by Cooper and Grotevant, an investigation was completed to assess the predictive utility of measures of family connectedness and individuality in differentiating among the four identity statuses. Data were obtained from male and female late adolescents and their mothers and fathers on perceptions of independence (individuality), communication, and emotional affection (connectedness). Differences among adolescents grouped into the four identity formation statuses were assessed using analysis of variance techniques comparing gender and identity status on measures of connectedness and individuality within a parent-adolescent relationship. Evidence consistent with the notion that a combination of emotional attachment to parents and the encouragement of independence striving by parents is associated with healthy identity development emerges from our data.This research was funded in part by the W144 Western Regional Research Project, Development of Social Competency in Children, with funding provided by the Science and Education Administration/Cooperative Research of the USDA and the Utah State Agricultural Experiment Station, Logan.Completed his doctoral work at Utah State University under the direction of the second and third authors. Interested in counseling and clinical psychology, therapy, and adolescent/child psychology.Interested in personality and social development during childhood and adolescence.Interested in clinical and counseling psychology, therapy, and psychological adjustment.     

Ego identity status,ego development,and locus of control in college women

This study examined the relationship of identity status to ego development and locus of control in 75 college women. The identity statuses did not differ significantly in self-reported locus of control, but did differ on the depth measure of ego development. Consistent with identity theory and with previous research with males, identity achievers and moratorium (incrisis) women were more advanced in their ego development than fore-closure and diffusion women.This article is based in part on the doctoral dissertation of Sheila D. Ginsburg, Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Doctor of Philosophy degree, University of Missouri—St. Louis.Received her Ph.D. in clinical psychology from the University of Missouri—St. Louis. Current research interests include normative and dysfunctional development in children and adolescents.Received his Ph.D. in clinical psychology at State University of New York at Buffalo. Research interests include personality and social development of adolescents and young adults.     

The Role of Epistemic Cognition in Adolescent Identity Formation: Further Evidence

Following Boyes and Chandler (1992), it is investigated how adolescents’ epistemic understanding relates to the process of identity formation. In a cross-sectional as well as longitudinal study, identity status scores of diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium and identity achievement as assessed by the Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status were analyzed as a function of adolescents’ epistemic stance, while simultaneously taking into account individual differences in identity processing styles. The cross-sectional sample was composed of 200 German adolescents from Grades 7, 9, 11, and 13 (mean age: 16.2 years, SD = 2.41). The longitudinal study consisted of 134 participants (mean age at retest: 16.5 years, SD = 1.7) and covered a time interval of 18 months. Findings confirmed the view that the development of epistemic cognition contributes to adolescent identity formation. Specifically, the development of a multiplistic epistemic stance predicted higher moratorium scores, whereas the more advanced evaluativist epistemic position contributed to identity achievement over time. These effects were not due to individual differences in identity processing style.     

Sex differences in identity and intimacy development in college youth

This study examined sex differences in the processes of identity and intimacy development among college youth. Fifty males, and 50 females were given measures of identity status, intimacy status, and self-esteem. Males were found to focus on intrapersonal aspects of identity status, intimacy status, and self-esteem. Males were found to focus on intrapersonal aspects of identity, females on interpersonal aspects. The pursuit of various identity development pathways affected self-esteem differentially for the two sexes. More females than males were found to be intimate and the achievement of intimacy seemed more closely related to identity in males than in females. The findins were interpreted in the context of Eriksonian theory, which seemed more adequate in explaining male than female development.This article is based in part on the doctoral dissertation by James W. Hodgson in partial fulfillment of the Doctor of Philosophy degree, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania.Received his Ph. D. in human development and family studies from The Pennsylvania State University. Current research interests include normative and dysfunctional development of late adolescence.Received her Ph.D. in social personality psychology from the University of Colorado. Current research interests include the developments of friendships and sex roles in adolescence.     

The state of research on ego identity: A review and appraisal

Considerable research on ego identity has appeared over the past 15 years, indicating the need for an overall review. Part I commences by considering the complexity of Erikson's concept and suggesting several different theoretical contexts in which it has been used. The validity of investigators' attempts to operationalize the concept ego identity is assumed to depend in part upon their interpretations of its meaning. The subsequent review of empirical literature is organized according to different procedures which have been used to measure ego identity. A first section summarizes and evaluates research utilizing Q-sort and self-report questionnaire measures, while a second considers the large number of investigations that have employed James Marcia's Identity Status Interview. The latter group of studies are ordered according to the type of dependent variable (e.g., cognitive, behavioral, personality, developmental) examined in relation to ego identity status (i.e., achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, diffusion). Part II of the review, to appear in the next issue of this journal, will recapitulate the identity status literature, present an overall evaluation of the identity status paradigm, and suggest a number of issues for future research.Support for this study comes from research training grant No. 5-T32MH14668-02 awarded to Dr. D. Offer by the National Institute of Mental Health.Postdoctoral Fellow in the Clinical Research Training Program in Adolescence jointly sponsored by the Institute for Psychosomatic and Psychiatric Research and Training of Michael Reese Hospital and Medical Center and the Committee on Human Development of the University of Chicago. Present research interests include adolescent ego development and epistemological/methodological issues in personality theory and measurement.     

Toward the development of an objective assessment of ego-identity status

Four investigations were completed to develop a self-report measure of ego-identity status. Following James Marcia's definition of diffusion, moratorium, foreclosure, and identity achievement status, a series of Likert-type items were constructed and validated for use in the study of ego-identity formation. Convergent-divergent, concurrent, and predictive validity and test-retest reliability are documented in the reported data. Cross-sectional data suggest the measure will be sensitive to intraindividual change in identity formation. The new Objective Measure of Ego-Identity Status allows researchers to use either a typology or a distribution of stage responses in future longitudinal investigations.This research was supported by a Division of Research Grant at Utah State University.Received his Ph.D. in human development from the Pennsylvania State University. Current research interests include adolescent personality and social development, interpersonal attraction, and family relations.Received her M.S. from Utah State University and is currently a doctoral student at Pennsylvania State University.Received his B.S. from Utah State University and is currently a graduate student at that institution.     

Erikson stage resolution: The relationship between identity and intimacy

Ego identity and intimacy statuses were determined for 88 college students, 44 men and 44 women, and related to each other and to measures of intimacy, loving, and liking. As hypothesized, more advanced stages of identity development were associated with higher levels of intimacy formation. Further, for both males and females, occupational identity development was the primary predictive factor in the identity/intimacy stage resolution relationship.Received her M. S. from Utah State University.Received his M. A. in psychology from the University of Nebraska at Omaha and his Ph.D. in human development from The Pennsylvania State University.