Inter-disciplinarity,development studies,and development practice1

The article primarily seeks to show the interconnectedness of diverse academic disciplines and their crucial role in development practice. It sheds light on the meanings of development-related concepts and seeks to delineate between the four inter-related concepts of multi-, inter-, trans-, and cross-disciplinarity. It argues that while inter-disciplinarity is desirable for a broad-based discipline such as Development Studies, the appropriateness of the concept when juxtaposed with trans-disciplinarity seems somewhat inadequate. Buttressing the importance of the contributions of all disciplines and of course development initiatives to Development Studies, case studies of failed water and agricultural projects – which never incorporated vital and cognate expertise – in the South are, thus, provided in the discourse.     

Using community indicators for evaluating research and development programmes: experiences from Malawi

Evaluations involving stakeholders include collaborative evaluation, participatory evaluation, development evaluation, and empowerment evaluation – distinguished by the degree and depth of involvement of local stakeholders or programme participants in the evaluation process. In community participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E), communities agree programme objectives and develop local indicators for tracking and evaluating change. PM&E is not without limitations, one being that community indicators are highly specific and localised, which limits wide application of common community indicators for evaluating programmes that span social and geographic space. We developed community indicators with six farming communities in Malawi to evaluate a community development project. To apply the indicators across the six communities, we aggregated them and used a Likert scale and scores to assess communities' perceptions of the extent to which the project had achieved its objectives. We analysed the data using a comparison of means to compare indicators across communities and by gender.     

The learning organisation as a model for rural development

This article presents evidence from Uganda's National Agricultural Advisory Service to argue that the concept of ‘the learning organisation’ is a valuable complement to participatory development which may facilitate a shift towards more democratic development institutions in which target beneficiaries have a stronger voice in planning and managing development. The concept of ‘the learning organisation’ as developed within the literature of management studies cannot, however, be readily translated into anything as specific as a clear set of practical guidelines. Rather it acts as a seed that grows to take on characteristics specific to the rural development context.     

An innovative approach to building stronger coalitions: the Net-Map Toolbox

A common challenge faces development organisations, from the highest policy-making circles to local, grassroots organisations: how to work with other groups to build stronger partnerships and achieve consensus on goals? This article describes the Net-Map Toolbox, a new tool which builds and expands upon existing social-networking approaches. The article highlights the experience of using the Toolbox with the White Volta Basin Board in Ghana, a multi-stakeholder organisation responsible for overseeing local water resources. The authors discuss how the Net-Map Toolbox can assist members of development-oriented organisations to better understand and interact with each other in situations where many different actors can influence the outcome.     

Donkeys in development: welfare assessments and knowledge mobilisation

Donkeys provide important means of agricultural power, transport, and income generation for people in the developing world. Yet donkeys work in harsh environments and challenging socio-economic contexts whereby their health and well-being is often compromised. This article provides development researchers and practitioners with a donkey welfare assessment protocol merging natural and social science and emphasising a community-engaged approach. It focuses on the donkey's condition and on human attitudes and broader dynamics that shape particular welfare outcomes. A holistic understanding of donkey welfare issues is vital to ensuring appropriate and effective development interventions for the benefit of humans and their animals.     

Who will guard the guardians? Amartya Sen's contribution to development evaluation

An Action Learning process integrated with Sen's Capability Approach can support development agencies to formulate interventions that enhance freedom. The authors show that putting this approach into practice has important implications for the manner in which ‘development’ is undertaken as an ideological project. It may help to examine and challenge those who hold power in development: the guardians. This finding is the result of an emergent Action Learning process that was initiated by applying Sen's principles to focus-group interviews with women who care for people affected by HIV and AIDS. One of the findings of these focus groups was that the participants valued the process because it opened a space for them to influence the work of the implementing NGO. Essentially, they could hold the implementing agency to account. Reflection on this outcome by the agency led to important shifts in processes that are more supportive of freedom.     

Water tariff conflict resolution through indigenous participation in tri-water sector partnerships: Dalun cluster communities in northern Ghana

The paper examines how the perceived ownership of a water resource negatively influenced local people's attitudes towards payment of potable water tariffs and exacerbated conflicts between water users and service providers in the Dalun community of the northern region of Ghana. The paper presents a case study of how community participation and endogenous approaches to conflict resolution contributed to payment of water tariffs. The findings show that the establishment of a tri-water sector partnership (TWSP), consisting of the Ghana Water Company Ltd (GWCL), private sector development practitioners, and community water boards, led to positive mediation of water tariff conflicts using the institution of chieftaincy. Alternative, endogenous conflict resolution methods combined with modern methods in a tripartite partnership showed promise as an approach to managing conflicts in water projects and in broader poverty reduction efforts.     

Capacity building through secondment of staff: a possible model in emergencies?

This article offers a case study of a secondment of staff from a Northern NGO (Trócaire) to a Southern partner, the Catholic Development Commission (CADECOM) of Malawi, as a possible model for capacity building. The approach described was tried in the context of an emergency programme, but it could also be used in a development context. The author analyses the appropriateness of the model in terms of its administrative structure, focus, and impact, and draws lessons for practitioners for its successful application.     

Impact assessment of farmer institutional development and agricultural change: Soroti district,Uganda

This article is based on participatory development research conducted in Soroti district of Uganda with the aim of assessing the impact of agricultural development among poor farmers. The central argument is that a combination of farmer empowerment and innovation through experiential learning in farmer field school (FFS) groups, changes in the opportunity structure through transformation of local government staff, establishment of new farmer-governed local institutions, and emergence of a private service provider has been successful in reducing rural poverty. Based on an empirical study of successful adaptation and spread of pro-poor technologies, the study assesses the well-being impact of agricultural technology development in Soroti district. The study concludes that market-based spread of pro-poor agricultural technologies requires an institutional setting that combines farmer empowerment with an enabling policy environment.     

Rethinking poverty alleviation: a ‘poverties’ approach

This article argues that the practice of poverty alleviation is greatly limited by a vision of poverty that fails to capture the locally specific causes of and solutions to the challenges that threaten human well-being. This problematic vision of poverty takes real-world form in such initiatives as Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers. It is a key reason why this and other contemporary poverty-alleviation efforts do not show greatly improved results compared with previous efforts. By reframing our understanding of the challenges to human well-being from poverty to ‘poverties’, however, we might envisage a new approach to policy development in relation to poverty that moves us towards a truly sustainable development.     

Listen First: a pilot system for managing downward accountability in NGOs

This article reports on a research project intended to develop systematic ways of managing downward accountability in an international NGO. Innovative tools were developed and trialled in six countries. The tools comprised a framework, defining downward accountability in practical terms, and three management processes. They were successfully used to (a) encourage staff to improve downward accountability in ways relevant to their context; (b) hear beneficiaries' assessments of the level of accountability achieved and the value of the NGO's work; and (c) generate quantified performance summaries for managers. Taken together, they form a coherent draft management system. Areas for further research are identified.     

Reaching beyond the health post: Community-based surveillance for polio eradication

This article discusses the CORE Group Polio Project Ethiopia's introduction of community-based surveillance (CBS) of acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) to support polio eradication. A USAID-funded collaboration among Ethiopian and US-based NGOs, the CGPP supports volunteers in education about AFP and encouraging case reporting. Volunteers also conduct active case searches, visiting community leaders likely to have contact with paralysis cases. The project's methods strengthen communities' awareness of AFP and their connection to the health system. Data indicate a near doubling of AFP reporting in project areas since the implementation of CBS, according to MOH-E (Ministry of Health, Ethiopia)/WHO statistics.

Allant au-delà du poste de santé: surveillance communautaire pour éradication de la poliomyélite

Cet article traite de l'introduction par le Projet sur la polio du CORE Group (CGPP) en Éthiopie de la surveillance communautaire (SC) de la paralysie flasque aiguë (PFA) pour soutenir l’éradication de la polio. Le CGPP, collaboration financée par USAID entre ONG éthiopiennes et basées aux États-Unis, aide des volontaires à mener une éducation sur la PFA et à encourager la notification des cas. Les volontaires effectuent aussi des recherches actives de cas, rendant visite aux leaders communautaires susceptibles d’être en contact avec des cas de paralysie. Les méthodes du projet renforcent la prise de conscience par les communautés de la PFA et leurs liens avec le système de santé. Les données indiquent que le nombre de cas de PFA signalés a presque doublé dans les zones du projet depuis la mise en ?uvre de la SC, d'après les statistiques du Ministère de la Santé, éthiopien et de l'OMS.

Llegar más allá del puesto de salud: vigilancia comunitaria para erradicación de la poliomielitis

Este artículo examina el Proyecto contra la Poliomielitis llevado a cabo en Etiopía por CORE Group (CGPP por sus siglas en inglés), así como el uso que realiza del método de vigilancia comunitaria (VC) para el seguimiento de la parálisis flácida aguda (PFA). El objetivo de este proyecto es erradicar la polio. Constituye un esfuerzo conjunto de ONG etíopes y estadounidenses, financiado por USAID. CGPP apoya la formación de voluntarios para la vigilancia de la PFA, promoviendo la elaboración de informes sobre distintos casos. Asimismo, los voluntarios dan seguimiento a los casos vigentes, realizando visitas a los líderes comunitarios que, con frecuencia, tienen contacto con personas con parálisis. La metodología del proyecto impulsa la conciencia comunitaria en relación a la PFA y al vínculo entre las comunidades y el sistema de salud. Las estadísticas reportadas por el Ministerio de Salud de Etiopía y la OMS indican que, desde que inició la VC, se han duplicado los informes sobre PFA en las áreas abarcadas por el proyecto.

Indo além do posto de saúde: investigação baseada na comunidade para a erradicação da polio

Este artigo discute a introdução da Investigação Baseada na Comunidade sobre casos de paralisia flácida aguda (AFP) do Projeto Pólio do Grupo CORE da Etiópia, voltada para apoiar a erradicação da pólio. Uma colaboração financiada pela USAID entre ONGs baseadas na Etiópia e EUA, o CGPP apóia voluntários na educação sobre AFP e incentiva o relato de casos. Os voluntários também conduzem pesquisas de caso ativas, visitando líderes de comunidade que provavelmente tenham contato com casos de paralisia. Os métodos do projeto fortalecem a conscientização das comunidades a respeito da AFP e sua conexão com o sistema de saúde. Os dados indicam que o número de relatos de AFP nas áreas do projeto quase dobrou desde a Implementação da Investigação Baseada na Comunidade, de acordo com estatísticas da MOH-E/WHO.     

Private extension-service provision for smallholder horticultural producers in Kenya: an approach

An approach to establishing improved private extension-service provision for smallholder horticultural producers in Kenya was developed between 2003 and 2005 by the International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology and Natural Resources Institute in the UK, in collaboration with EurepGAP FoodPLUS GmbH and the House of Quality–South Africa, international NGOs, export companies, and out-grower farmer groups. The approach focused on good agricultural practices, food safety, EU regulations on maximum pesticide-residue limits, and the EurepGAP Standard. The approach is not a blueprint, but the lessons learned are applicable to similar smallholder production systems in other African countries.     

Participatory risk assessment: a new approach for safer food in vulnerable African communities

Women play the major role in food supply in developing countries, but too often their ability to feed their families properly is compromised; the result is high levels of food-borne disease and consequent limited access to higher-value markets. We argue that risk-based approaches – current best practice for managing food safety in developed countries – require adaptation to the difficult context of informal markets. We suggest participatory research and gender analysis as boundary-spanning mechanisms, bringing communities and food-safety implementers together to analyse food-safety problems and develop workable solutions. Examples show how these methodologies can contribute to operationalising risk-based approaches in urban settings and to the development of a new approach to assessing and managing food safety in poor countries, which we call ‘participatory risk analysis’.     

Structures,values, and interaction in field-level partnerships: the case of UNHCR and NGOs

This article discusses the process of transforming partnership from a conceptual framework into a practical, operational framework for field-level interaction among humanitarian organisations. The authors approach this transformation from the perspective of the core values of the partnership concept and the ability of field workers to behave in ways that are consistent with these core values, illustrated by an empirical study of the relationships between the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and NGOs in a refugee-assistance programme in northern Uganda. The authors connect inter-organisational structures with the role of people charged with making partnership work, concluding that the structures and context in which individuals operate make it impossible for them to ‘act out’ the core values of partnership. By identifying the major challenges to creating field-level, operational partnerships, the authors offer lessons for current and future partnership-building initiatives, such as the Global Humanitarian Platform.     

Meeting the challenges to scaling up HIV/AIDS treatment in Africa

AIDS-related morbidity and mortality not only affects individuals and their families, but is rapidly undermining African states' capacity to develop. Stemming the impacts of the pandemic has therefore become a major concern. This calls for meeting the needs for care and support of those affected, and increasing the access of persons living with HIV/AIDS to effective treatment. Provision of such complex medication in resource-limited settings is a fairly recent phenomenon. In this context, the article builds on emerging experiences from the field in identifying issues and challenges that need to be addressed in order to facilitate the scaling-up of HIV/AIDS treatment in Africa.     

Perceptions and practices of farmer empowerment in Tanzania

The purpose of this article is to review the implementation of various empowerment interventions in Tanzania. Data for the review are based on field visits to programmes/projects/organisations involved in implementing empowerment interventions in various regions of the country. These visits involved key-informant interviews, sample surveys, and focus-group discussions with farmers. The review highlights the perceptions of empowerment at the levels of project staff and practitioners/beneficiaries, as well as the approaches used by various organisations and projects in implementing empowerment activities. In addition the article discusses the factors perceived to lead to empowerment, as well as its consequences.     

Community sustainable-development indicators: a useful participatory technique or another dead end?

This article undertakes a critical re-evaluation of a DFID-funded project in South Africa which ran between 1998 and 2001. The evaluation sought to test whether the development of community-led indicators would improve governance. Since the project ended, a series of papers have been published that are critical of such participatory methods, arguing particularly that they are apolitical and adopt a technocratic approach. In the light of these criticisms, this article re-assesses the DFID project, following on from the initial evaluation carried out by the author in 2001. Sobantu, a black township in Pietermaritzburg, was one of the original project sites. It was chosen as the subject for research because the local implementing agency was a politically astute, well-connected institution that understood the political nature of the process required to develop the indicators. Although the project achieved some positive outcomes, the long-term commitment to the indicators has since been compromised. This was in large part due to the inability of community members to engage meaningfully with key municipal service providers. However, recent changes to the South African planning regime might provide opportunities for the indicators to become more useful again.     

Saving behaviour of citrus farmers in Ghana: implications for rural enterprise development

This article reports on a study that examined the saving behaviour of farmers in southern Ghana, using a sample of 100 citrus farmers. Probit and Tobit models were used in determining the factors that influence farmers’ saving behaviours and amount of saved, respectively. The empirical findings showed that age, household size, dependency, marital status, distance to financial institution, transport cost and congestion exerted significant negative impact on farmers’ saving behaviours. On the other hand, income, education, and gender tended to promote good saving behaviour. The article concludes that heterogeneity of factors ranging from socio-economic, household assets, and institutional factors greatly stimulate farmers’ saving behaviour.     

Skills development in South Africa: Group Five's social investment project

The boom in the construction industry in South Africa has drawn attention to the need for skills development. This article reports on an evaluation of the ‘People at the Gate’ training programme initiated by Group Five in Gauteng and Mpumalanga Provinces. The programme aims to empower unemployed local community members in areas where the company operates. The programme targets women and men who come to the company's sites looking for possible employment and are unable to be accommodated due to their lack of skills. The study evaluated the difficulties that trainees are faced with during and after the project; employment opportunities that are created; and the skills most needed in different trades and provinces.