现代人面颅角度测量的种族差异性

目的探索面颅角度指标在种族鉴定方面的差异性。方法选取现代人头骨57例,其中中国黄种人头骨30例（女性9例,男性21例）,包括吉林1例,河北5例,山东4例,青海4例,安徽4例,江西3例,云南3例,贵州3例,广西3例。欧洲自种人头骨27例,性别不详,取自欧洲Zellemdorf、Vresovice、Kysperka3地。按体质人类学测量方法,通过参考相关文献和对颅骨形态特点的观察,设计面颅左侧眶角、右侧眶角、鼻颌角3个角度指标进行测量。对测量数据进行描述性统计分析和两独立样本之间的t检验。结果3个角度指标在种族差异性方面,眶角的种族差异性具有显著统计学意义（P〈0．01）,而鼻颌角之间的种族差异性无统计学意义（P〉0．05）。结论有些角度指标显示出明显的种族差异性,今后需要加强此方面的研究。     

An investigation into the accuracy and reliability of skull-photo superimposition in a South African sample

One of the aims of forensic science is to determine the identities of victims of crime. In some cases the investigators may have ideas as to the identities of the victims and in these situations, ante mortem photographs of the victims could be used in order to try and establish identity through skull-photo superimposition. The aim of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of a newly developed digital photographic superimposition technique on a South African sample of cadaver photographs and skulls. Forty facial photographs were selected and for each photo, 10 skulls (including the skull corresponding to the photo) were used for superimposition. The investigator did not know which of the 10 skulls corresponded to the photograph in question. The skulls were scanned 3-dimensionally, using a Cyberware? Model 3030 Colour-3D Scanhead scanner. The photos were also scanned. Superimposition was done in 3D Studio Max and involved a morphological superimposition, whereby a skull is superimposed over the photo and assessed for a morphological match. Superimposition using selected anatomical landmarks was also performed to assess the match. A total of 400 skull-photo superimpositions were carried out using the morphological assessment and another 400 using the anatomical landmarks. In 85% of cases the correct skull was included in the possible matches for a particular photo using morphological assessment. However, in all of these cases, between zero and three other skulls out of 10 possibilities could also match a specific photo. In the landmark based assessment, the correct skull was included in 80% of cases. Once again, however, between one and seven other skulls out of 10 possibilities also matched the photo. This indicates that skull-photo superimposition has limited use in the identification of human skeletal remains, but may be useful as an initial screening tool. Corroborative techniques should also be used in the identification process.     

A Comparative Taphonomic Analysis of 24 Trophy Skulls from Modern Forensic Cases,

Cranial remains retained from fallen enemies are commonly referred to as “trophy skulls,” and many such crania were acquired as souvenirs by U.S. servicemembers during WWII and the Vietnam conflict. These remains increasingly have become the subject of forensic anthropological analysis as their possessors, typically veterans or their relatives, try to discard or repatriate them. The present research uses a qualitative analytical approach to review 24 cases of reported trophy skulls (14 previously unpublished cases and 10 from the literature) to determine which perimortem and postmortem characteristics are most useful for generating a taphonomic profile. Overall, the taphonomic signature of trophy remains includes traits relating to acquisition and preparation, ornamental display, and subsequent curation. Contextual evidence and the biological profile also are considered when determining the possible origin of human cranial remains as a trophy skull. Thorough taphonomic analysis will aid in identifying these types of remains as trophy skulls.     

The colour of the human skull

The colour of the human skull was determined from 124 fresh skull samples using the tristimulus colour measurement system "Micro Color" and listed as The Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) L*a*b*-values. The skulls were found to be relatively light (L*=72.5), nearly colourless on the a*-axis (a*=-7.4), and slightly yellow (b*=16.4). No difference was found between the colours of the outer and the inner surfaces of the skulls. Including a small number (n=8) of skulls from diabetic patients in the study, we detected no colour difference between the samples from diabetics and non-diabetics. However, a hitherto unknown correlation between the subjects' age and the yellowness (b*-value) of the skull could be demonstrated.     

A novel skull registration based on global and local deformations for craniofacial reconstruction

Craniofacial reconstruction is important in forensic identification. It aims to estimate a facial appearance for human skeletal remains using the relationship between the soft tissue and the underlying bone structure. Various computerized methods have been developed in recent decades. An effective way is to deform a reference skull to the discovered skull, and then apply the same deformation to the skin associated with the reference skull to provide an approximate face for the discovered skull. For this method, the better the two skulls match each other, the more face-like the reconstructed skin surface will be. In this paper, we present a novel skull registration method that can match the two skulls closely, so as to improve the accuracy of the reconstruction. It combines both global and local deformations. A generic thin-plate spline (TPS)-based deformation, which is global, is applied first to roughly align the two skulls based on two groups of manually defined landmarks. Afterwards, the two skulls are largely matched, except some regions, on which some new landmarks are automatically marked. A compact support radial basis functions (CSRBF)-based deformation, which is local, will then be performed on these regions to adjust the initial alignment of the two skulls. Such adjustment can be repeatedly implemented until the two skulls have optimal alignment. In addition, all the skulls and face involved in the registration are represented by their single outer surfaces to facilitate the reconstruction procedure. The experiments demonstrate that our method can create a plausible face even when the reference skull is very different from the discovered skull. As a result, we can make full use of our database to provide multiple estimates for a principle components analysis (PCA) for the final reconstruction.     

用判别函数对一块颅骨性别差异的研究

作者对东北汉族60例(男、女各30例)单块颅骨(上颌骨、额骨、枕骨和顶骨)的25项指标进行测量,应用判别分析方法对每块颅骨进行分析,发现了某些性别差异非常显著的指标,并获得了12个判别式。结果表明:用单个颅骨判别性别存在着明显的差异,其中额骨最好,其判别率达93.3％,与国外的研究比较,本文判別率高,具有实用性。     

Coming to terms with facial reproduction

The process of building human faces by applying clay to skulls to generate leads for identification of unknown human remains is plagued by the use of a number of terms which are already used for other purposes. Reconstitution, reconstruction, restoration, death mask, moulage, and sculpture have all been used, but each is used in another context in forensic science. "Facial reproduction" is suggested as a term which is not already in use in forensic science, which is precise, and which would thus be preferred over any of the other terms.     

Independent instances of "souvenir" Asian skulls from the Tampa Bay area

In the summer of 1984, police in Pinellas County, Florida, confiscated six identically colored imported Asian skulls (in a shipping case) from a private citizen. In May 1988, in nearby Hillsborough County, police confiscated a very similar skull from another private citizen, who allegedly had found it in an abandoned house. Aside from slight color differences between the six found in Pinellas County and the one found in Hillsborough County, the skulls are virtually identical in their osteological characteristics and condition and in the vital statistics derived from each. Each skull is as clean and dry as those typically sold by commercial scientific supply outlets in the United States. Each is edentulous (primarily premortem), between approximately 20 and 60 years of age at death, and morphologically Asian. Five of the seven are morphologically male, one is morphologically female, and one is a mosaic with respect to gender-related features. Police, medical examiners, coroners, and forensic anthropologists should be aware of such "souvenir" specimens, in the event that they encounter similar skulls. Discriminant function analyses for race and sex yield considerably conflicting results, which underscores the need for using extreme caution when interpreting forensic science estimates based on such techniques.     

Application of superimposition-based personal identification using skull computed tomography images

Superimposition has been applied to skulls of unidentified skeletonized corpses as a personal identification method. The current method involves layering of a skull and a facial image of a suspected person and thus requires a real skeletonized skull. In this study, we scanned skulls of skeletonized corpses by computed tomography (CT), reconstructed three-dimensional (3D) images of skulls from the CT images, and superimposed the 3D images with facial images of the corresponding persons taken in their lives. Superimposition using 3D-reconstructed skull images demonstrated, as did superimposition using real skulls, an adequate degree of morphological consistency between the 3D-reconstructed skulls and persons in the facial images. Three-dimensional skull images reconstructed from CT images can be saved as data files and the use of these images in superimposition is effective for personal identification of unidentified bodies.     

Computer analysis of face and skull size by "quantitative verbal portrait" method

The aim of this study was to develop a "quantitative verbal portrait" method on the basis of universal measured signs of the face and skull. The database includes 90 cases with expert evaluation of photocompatibility with proven identity. Four groups of signs were investigated: DX and DY--the width and height between accurately fixed concrete craniometrical (facial) points and the so-called RX and RY indices--the ratio between distances within the framework of the same direction. The proposed scheme of evaluation helps compare the photograph of a live human and the skull. For evaluating the degree of identity, one should have a summary characterization of all selected signs for the skull and compare it with the sum on the photograph; sometimes it is possible to rule out the identity of the photograph and the skull by the absolute size, e.g., a very large skull cannot belong to a human with a very little face. The score for each group of signs is used for analysis of the information for detecting the similarities. Accumulation and comparative analysis of two information flows are possible: database on portraits of lost subjects and database on graphic images of the skulls of unidentified corpses.     

Identification of skull from its suture pattern

The examination of 320 skulls collected at random revealed that the ectocranial suture patterns in them are highly individualistic and that no two skulls can ever have an identical pattern. The possibility of these suture patterns being recorded incidentally in routine diagnostic skull radiographs was verified by examining the skull skiagrams preserved in radiology departments. A positive method of identification of the skull is suggested by the comparison of radiographic with visible skull suture pattern.     

Taphonomic changes to blunt force trauma: a preliminary study

This study examines the effects of taphonomic processes on blunt force trauma (BFT) through an experimental study involving pig heads. Of particular concern is the possibility that taphonomic changes can create pseudo-trauma and/or conceal evidence of actual trauma. BFT was inflicted on 10 pig skulls using a hammer. The skulls were subsequently exposed to the environment for 12 months. Seven taphonomic changes were evaluated: the freeze-thaw cycle; rodent gnawing; carnivore scavenging; presence/weight of soil; presence/weight of rain and snow; movement/displacement of bones; and discoloration due to sun bleaching and grass staining. Taphonomic effects varied between cancellous, compact, fresh, and degreased bone. Freezing and thawing, exposure to rain and snow, movement of the skulls, and soil erosion altered and, in some cases disguised, pre-existing trauma. Rodent and carnivore activity did not obliterate evidence of BFT. Recommendations for evaluating BFT on remains affected by taphonomic processes are presented. As each taphonomic process outlined by this study has the potential to disguise antemortem injury, the authors propose that one must carefully examine large, circular openings in the skull that may represent the remnant evidence of BFT.     

Course of the meatus acusticus internus as criterion for sex differentiation

The importance of features that allow the determination of an individual's gender even with skulls that have been largely destroyed is undisputed in archaeological and anthropological practice. Due to its extreme mechanical strength, the pars petrosa ossis temporalis is usually preserved in skulls and the sex dimorphisms of this skeletal part are therefore of particular significance. In the present study, we aimed at clarifying the controversial question whether the course of the meatus acusticus internus (M.a.i.) beneath the superior surface also reveals sex-specific differences. Using 410 forensically modern petrous portions, the course of the canal was examined and the respective angles determined using a specifically developed casting and cutting technique. The median values certainly reveal sex differences: the lateral angle on the male petrous portions is 10 degrees smaller than that of females; the medial angles on female petrous portions are approximately 5 degrees smaller than those of male skulls. Using discriminant analysis, approximately 66% of the specimens can be determined accurately.     

Sex diagnosis of Chinese skulls using multiple stepwise discriminant function analysis.

Sixty Chinese skulls (30 males and 30 females) from Liaoning Province of the People's Republic of China were used in this study. Forty-one variables on each skull were measured and one group of 14 and a second group of 5 variables were selected from all the variables by applying multiple stepwise regression on a computer. Discriminant equations for the 14 and 5 variables for sex diagnosis have been obtained and these variables are highly significant. The discriminant rate for the group of 5 variables resulted in accurate sex determination in 96.7% of cases. For the group of 14 variables there was 100% success rate.     

Hyperostosis frontalis interna as an age-related phenomenon – Differences between males and females and possible use in identification

Hyperostosis frontalis interna (HFI) is a condition manifested by thickening of the inner surface of the frontal bone and it could be useful when dealing with the identification of human remains in various anthropological and forensic investigations. We compared the macroscopic appearance and morphologic (metric) features of the skulls in cases with and without HFI, in both sexes, and wanted to establish whether age determined occurrence of HFI. To achieve this aim, we performed prospective autopsy study, covering ten-year period (2007–2016). Study group consisted of southeast Europe Caucasian subjects, with determined age and sex. The severity of HFI was classified by two forensic pathologists independently, according to the four types (A–D) proposed by Hershkovitz et al. Thicknesses of the frontal and temporal bones, as well as the longitudinal and frontal diameters of the skulls were measured. The sample consisted of 35 males and 112 females with HFI, and 55 males and 202 females without HFI (404 individuals in total). Type B was the most common type of HFI among males (45%) and type C among females (41%). HFI type D was almost four times more common in females than in males (OR?=?3.73). Frontal and temporal bones were thicker in all subjects who have HFI. Thickness of the skull was not age-dependent, in the entire sample, or in subjects with HFI, or in the control group (in all the cases Spearman's Rho was <0.3). Age seemed to be a predicting factor for HFI occurrence only in females. Females younger than 55?years have similar risk for HFI occurrence as males. An unidentified skull with the general markers of old age and severe form HFI is most probably from a female decedent.     

Possiblities of craniofacial identification from incomplete and damaged skulls

With the aim of development criteria for assessment of results of personal identification with the use of the method of photo superposition of incomplete and damaged skulls at initial stages of our work, the frequency of submission of such skulls to examination was determined. Main groups of skull defects were determined, and identification results subject to each defect were estimated; which gave conclusion that presence or absence of one or another defect did not impede photo superposition. Signs, which most frequently were crucial for final result of identification, were determined. Analysis of obtained data show that the more number of crucial signs will be taken into account at personal identification, all the more with incomplete skulls, the more valid result will be obtained.     

Evaluation of pediatric skull fracture imaging techniques

Radiologic imaging is crucial in the diagnosis of skull fracture, but there is some doubt as to whether different imaging modalities can accurately identify fractures present on a human skull. While studies have been performed to evaluate the efficacy of radiologic imaging at other anatomical locations, there have been no systematic studies comparing various CT techniques, including high resolution imaging with and without 3D reconstructions to conventional radiologic imaging in children, we investigated which imaging modalities: high-resolution CT scan with 3D projections, clinical-resolution CT scans or X-rays, best showed fracture occurrence in a pediatric human cadaver skull by having an expert pediatric radiologist examine radiologic images from fractured skulls. The skulls used were taken from pediatric cadavers ranging in age from 5 months to 16 years. We evaluated the sensitivity and specificity for the imaging modalities using dissection findings as the gold standard. We found that high-resolution CT scans with 3D projections and conventional CT provided the most accurate fracture diagnosis (single-fracture sensitivity of 71%) followed by X-rays (single-fracture sensitivity of 63%). Linear fractures outsider the region of the sutures were more identifiable than diastatic fractures, though the incidence of false positives was greater for linear fractures. In the two cases where multiple fractures were present on the same anatomical skull location, the radiologist was less likely to identify the presence of additional fractures than a single fracture. Overall, the high-resolution and clinical-resolution CT scans had the similar accuracy for detecting skull fractures while the use of the X-ray was both less accurate and had a lower specificity.     

眶下裂和眶下沟横断面CT表现及其解剖基础研究

目的研究正常人眶下裂和眶下沟横断面CT表现及其解剖基础,避免将其误认为眶壁骨折。方法正常颅骨25个,肉眼观察眶下裂和眶下沟解剖形态。5个颅骨和20名正常人,眶横断面CT扫描,观察眶后外侧形态,15例辅以多平面重建和三维立体重建。结果在标本和正常人横断面上,眶后外侧面同时反映眶外侧壁和大部分眶下壁,其表现有:(1)单处缺裂,两侧对称或不对称;(2)双处缺裂,缺裂之间夹有片状小骨,小骨长轴与眶外侧壁平行一致;(3)类似双处缺裂,缺裂之间出现片状小骨,小骨呈锥状,长轴在前后方向上。大体标本和眼眶重建图像显示,上述三种情况分别对应的解剖基础是:(1)棒球杆样眶下裂;(2)V形眶下裂,即眶下裂分内外两支,内支位于蝶骨大翼下缘与下颌骨后缘间,外支位于蝶骨大翼下缘与颧骨之间,内外支间形成一向上开口的“V”字形;(3)深陷的眶下沟,伴有突出并向内倾斜的外侧壁。结论熟悉正常人眶下裂和眶下沟的横断面CT表现及其解剖学基础,可以避免将其误认为眶壁骨折。     

Anthropological facial ‘reconstruction’ – recognizing the fallacies, ‘unembracing’ the errors, and realizing method limits

Despite being practiced for over the last 200 years, facial approximation methods remain in their infancy as the soft tissue prediction methods employed have not been tested and justified. Scientific testing is the only way forward and much of it is needed. The lack of systematic scientific tests in the past has enabled many misleading notions to become established. Many of these notions appear to have arisen and been sustained as a result of practitioner biases--this is clearly evident even in the name commonly used to describe the method of building faces from skulls, for "facial reconstruction" implies everything the method is not, e.g., technical/scientific, exact, and credible. Although facial approximation methods are useful for forensic investigation (even if they do not generate identifications through true positive recognitions of the faces), the public should beware of the marketing and political ploys employed within the profession. These ploys give rise to some impressive, but unjustifiable claims--but do not just take my word for it; evaluate the evidence for yourself with disregard to the indoctrination waged by the facial "reconstruction" field in general, including that promoted by what I have had to say here. Use your own reason and intellect and see which conclusions you reach.     

Muti murders form South Africa: a case report

In Southern Africa, human body parts are sometimes used for medicinal (muti) purposes. The human body is seen as being very powerful. Although ritual killing for this purpose is not common, some cases have been reported. This paper reports on an unusual muti murder, where the remains of two individuals were found in a medicine man's house. Three pots were found, two of which were constructed around human skulls. Various objects, such as coins, bullets, stones, human and animal bones were found inside the pots. They were decorated with beadwork, whistles, skin bangles, etc. Osteological analysis revealed that the human remains probably belonged to a young, white adult male individual, and a juvenile individual of Negroid descent. All associated objects probably have ritual significance, and some of these are discussed.